Overview of Memory and Consciousness

A comprehensive set of flashcards covering key concepts related to memory and consciousness as discussed in the lecture notes.

Memory

Recalling past events and past learning by encoding, storage, and retrieval.

Encoding

The process of getting information into memory.

Storage

The retention of memories for future use.

Retrieval

The process of recapturing memories when needed.

Information-processing Model

A model that suggests information passes through three memory stores: sensory memory, working memory, and long-term memory.

Sensory memory

A brief retention of sensory information, lasting less than a second.

Iconic memory

Memory for visual stimuli.

Echoic memory

Memory for auditory stimuli.

Working memory

A short-term memory store holding information for about 30 seconds, typically limited to 5-9 items.

Long-term memory

A store of information that can last indefinitely.

Memory systems analogy

Memory is analogous to a computer, with different storage locations for different kinds of information.

Parallel distributed-processing model

A model suggesting that info in the brain is represented as a pattern of activation across neural networks.

Automatic processing

Remembering information with little conscious awareness or effort.

Effortful processing

Remembering information with conscious effort and attention.

Rehearsal

The conscious repetition of information to encode it into memory.

Spaced practice effect

A method of studying that involves distributing practice over time, improving memory retention.

Phonological encoding

Encoding based on sound.

Visual encoding

Encoding based on how information looks.

Semantic encoding

Encoding based on the meaning of the information.

Mnemonics

Techniques to increase the meaningfulness of information and improve memorization.

Chunking

Grouping bits of information together to make them easier to remember.

Schemas

Organized categories created by previous experiences that help process new information.

PQRST Method

A study technique involving Previewing, Questioning, Reading, Self-recitating, and Testing.

Explicit memory

Memory that can be consciously recalled, such as facts or events.

Episodic memory

Memory of personal events or experiences.

Semantic memory

Memory of general knowledge about the world.

Implicit memory

Memory that a person is not consciously aware of, such as skills.

Procedural memory

Memory of motor skills and habits.

Priming

Exposure to one stimulus influences response to another stimulus.

Context effects

Enhanced recall of information when in the same context where it was learned.

Encoding specificity principle

Memory is improved if retrieval occurs in the same context as encoding.

Serial position effect

The tendency to recall the first and last items in a list better than the middle items.

Decaying theory

The idea that memory traces fade over time if not reinforced.

Interference theory

Forgetting due to competing information stored in memory.

Proactive interference

When old information interferes with the recall of new information.

Retrieval cues

Stimuli that help in retrieving memories.

Recognition vs Recall

Recognition tasks are generally easier than recall tasks due to cues.

State-dependent memory

Memory retrieval is improved when in the same state of mind as when the memory was encoded.

Flashbulb memories

Detailed memories of significant events.

Forgetting curve

The exponential decrease in memory retention over time.

Repression

The unconscious blocking of painful memories from awareness.

Source misattributions

Incorrectly recalling the source of information.

Misinformation effect

When exposure to misleading information affects memory recall.

Hypnosis

A state of consciousness that can lead to the creation of false memories.

Hippocampus

A brain structure important for the formation of long-term memories.

Memory consolidation

The process by which memories stabilize in the brain.

Long-term potentiation (LTP)

Increased synaptic strength that supports memory formation.

Infantile amnesia

The inability to retrieve memories from early childhood.

Amnesiac disorders

Memory disorders where memory loss is the primary symptom.

Anterograde amnesia

The inability to form new memories after a traumatic event.

Retrograde amnesia

The inability to recall memories from before a traumatic event.

Dementia

Severe memory impairment combined with other cognitive deficits.

Positive psychology

The study of positive feelings, traits, and abilities that contribute to happiness.

Circadian rhythm

The body’s biological clock regulating sleep-wake cycles.

Suprachiasmatic nucleus

A cluster of neurons in the hypothalamus that controls circadian rhythms.

Sleep cycles

Repeating stages of sleep characterized by different brain wave patterns.

Activation-Synthesis Model

Theory suggesting dreams are the brain's attempt to make sense of neural activity.

Depressants

Substances that slow down central nervous system activity.

Stimulants

Substances that increase energy and alertness.

Hallucinogens

Substances that produce sensory distortions and hallucinations.

Psychoactive drugs

Substances that alter mood, perception, or behavior.

Motivation

Processes that direct behavior towards a goal.

Drive reduction theory

Theory that motivation arises from the need to fulfill basic biological needs.

Arousal theory

Theory stating that we seek an optimal level of arousal for motivation.

Incentive theory

Theory that behavior is motivated by expected rewards or incentives.

Instinct theory

Theory that behavior is driven by biological instincts.

Hierarchy of needs

Maslow's theory that basic needs must be met before higher-level psychological needs.

Body weight set point

The weight range that the body tries to maintain.

Eating disorders

Mental disorders characterized by abnormal eating habits.

Anorexia Nervosa

Eating disorder characterized by an intense fear of weight gain and distorted body image.

Bulimia Nervosa

Eating disorder involving binge eating followed by purging.

Binge Eating Disorder

Eating disorder characterized by regular episodes of uncontrolled overeating.

Sexual orientation

A person's pattern of attraction to others based on their genders.

Conscious motivations

Motivations that individuals are aware of and can verbalize.

Unconscious motivations

Motivations that individuals are not consciously aware of.

Hedonic principle

The tendency to seek pleasure and avoid pain.

Fixed mindset

The belief that abilities and intelligence are static and unchangeable.

Growth mindset

The belief that abilities can be developed through effort and learning.

Affiliation motivation

The need to form social connections and relationships.

Achievement motivation

The desire to accomplish tasks and reach goals.

Delayed gratification

The ability to resist immediate rewards in favor of long-term goals.

Emotion

A state involving physiological changes, subjective feelings, and behavioral responses.

James-Lange theory

The theory that emotions arise from physiological responses.

Cannon-Bard theory

The theory that emotion and bodily reaction occur simultaneously.

Schachter-Singer two-factor theory

The theory that emotion is determined by physiological arousal and cognitive interpretation.