Brain and Behavior midterm 2: Chapter 4-7

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Anatomy of the Nervous System, Sensory Systems, Sensorimotor Systems, Motor Systems, Brain Damage/Disorders, & Learning and Memory

191 Terms

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Planes of brain orientation
Horizontal plane

Sagittal plane

Coronal plane
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Horizontal plane
Parallel to floor
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Sagittal plane
Splits down middle, left and right
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Coronal plane
Dividends front back back Posterior and anterior
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Medial or proximal
towards the middle
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Lateral or distal
going towards the side
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Ipsilateral
Same side
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Contralateral
opposite side
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Superior
Above
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Inferior
Below
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Anterior or rostral
near the head
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Posterior or caudal
near the feet
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Dorsal
Towards the back
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Ventral
Towards the belly or front
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Afferent
Neurons carry information into a region of interest
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Efferent
Neurons carry information away from region of interest
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Nervous systems:
The central nervous system

The peripheral nervous system
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Central nervous system
consists of the brain and spinal cord
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The peripheral nervous system
all other parts of the nervous system outside the brain and spinal cord

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Somatic nervous system

Autonomic nervous system
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Somatic nervous system
* Nerves that connect the brain and major muscles and sensory systems of the body 
* Voluntary
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Autonomic nervous system
* Nerves that connect to the viscera (internal organs)
* Automatic 

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* Sympathetic nervous system 
* Parasympathetic nervous system
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Sympathetic nervous system
* Axons that innervate the sympathetic ganglia


* Small clusters of neurons 
* “Fight or flight”
* Sweat, jump, digestion stops, heart rate, blood pressure, pupils 
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Parasympathetic nervous system
* Helps body relax and recuperate 
* “Rest and digest”
* Calms down body 
* Farther from CNS, closer to organs
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Bundles of axons names:
CNS - Tracts

PNS - Nerves
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Groups of cell bodies
CNS - Nuclei

PNS - Ganglion, Ganglia (plural)
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Myelin made by:
CNS - Oligodendrocytes

PNS - Schwann cells
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Motor nerves
Transmit information from the spinal cord and brain to muscles and glands
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Sensory nerves
Convey information from the cell body to the central nervous system
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Nerves of the somatic nervous system
* Cranial nerves
* Spinal nerves
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Cranial nerves
* Coming from head and neck going to visceral organs
* 12 pairs - one right and one left side
* Sensory, motor, or both
* Information from touch receptors in the head enters the CNS through the cranial nerves
* Vagus also has parasympathetic
* Diaphragm
* Misfire is vagus nerve
* Hiccups (literally)
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Spinal nerves
31 pairs - named after the vertebrae

* Cervical
* Thoracic
* Lumbar Lower back 5 segments
* Sacral Pelvic 5 segments
* Coccygeal Bottom 1 segment

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SAD = sensory afferent dorsal

* Types of info coming to and from spinal cordy

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* Depends on where touched 
* Information from receptors below the head enters the spinal cord and travel through the 31 spinal nerves to the brain
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Cervical
* Neck
* 8 segments
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Thoracic
* Trunk
* 12 segments
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Lumbar
* Lower back
* 5 segments
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Sacral
* Pelvic
* 5 segments
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Coccygeal
* Bottom
* 1 segment
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cauda equina
* “horse's tail”
* extension of spinal nerves beyond end of spinal cord

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* Epidurals are below the spinal cord
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dermatomes
* Areas of the body innervated by a specific spinal nerve
* Different areas of the periphery that are innovative by a different spinal nerve
* At all levels, inputs are organized into dermatomes, strips of skin each innervated by a particular spinal nerve
* Essentially is a receptive field
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Different effects on organs due to different neurotransmitters released by postganglionic neurons
* All preganglionic neurons release ACh.
* Sympathetic postganglionic neurons release epinephrine (= adrenaline)
* Parasympathetic postganglionic neurons release ACh
* All preganglionic neurons release ACh.
* Sympathetic postganglionic neurons release epinephrine (= adrenaline)
* Parasympathetic postganglionic neurons release ACh
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Embryonic development of brain and spinal cord
* Neural tube
* Then subdivides
* Front, forbrain
* Middle midbrain
* Hindbrain
* he hindbrain develops into the cerebellum, pons, and medulla.
* Brainstem refers to the midbrain, pons, and medulla combined
* Neural tube
* Then subdivides
  * Front, forbrain
  * Middle midbrain
  * Hindbrain
* he hindbrain develops into the cerebellum, pons, and medulla.
* Brainstem refers to the midbrain, pons, and medulla combined
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Protection of the nervous system:
* Chemical protection
* Physical protection
* Meninges
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Chemical protection
* Blood brain barrier 
* Tightly packed blood vessel cells and astrocytes
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Physical protection
* Skull and vertebral column(spine)
* Meninges 
* Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)
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Meninges
* Dura mater
* Arachnoid membrane
* Subarachnoid space
* Pia mater

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* Meningitis - acute infection of the meninges 
* Meningiomas - tumors formed in meninges
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Dura mater
* outer layer 
* “Tough mother”
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Arachnoid membrane
* middle layer 
* Spider weblike membrane 
* Below dura mater
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Subarachnoid space
* below the arachnoid membrane 
* Containing many blood vessels and cerebrospinal fluid 
* Looks like spider web
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Pia mater
* “Pious mother”
* Layer closest to brain and spinal cord 
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**Ventricular system** 
* **Ensuring the brain doesn’t “dry out”**
* Chambers filled with cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)
* **Lateral ventricle** 
* In each hemisphere
* Extends to all four lobes and lined with **choroid plexus**
* CSF flows into the **third ventricle** at the midline, through the **cerebral aqueduct**, and into the **fourth ventricle** where it exits to circulate over the brain and via the **central canal** of the spinal cord
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Too much cerebrospinal fluid 
* Absorbed into sinuses (large, blood filled spaces)
* Run through dura and drain into jugular veins of neck 
* **Hydrocephalus**
* (water head)
* Expansion of ventricles 
* Ex: due to blockage by tumor, etc 
* Need to drain
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Glymphatic System
* Glial cells (picking up junk) take info and take it to blood vessels to CSF
* Clear the gunk out 
* More active while a person is sleeping 
* Deep sleep 
* If can't sleep: excess debris 
* Problems with glymphatic system can relate to alzheimer’s disease 
* Build up 
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Cerebral blood flow and stroke
* Brain depends on a an ample supply of oxygenated blood from the **cerebral arteries**
* Need good supply!!
* Stroke: rupture, break, or blockage of blood vessels to prevent significant oxygen supply
* Types of stroke: (completely opposite)
* Ischemic
* Hemorrhagic
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Ischemic
* Blood flow restricted by clot or other obstruction 
* Treat by breaking the clot up
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Hemorrhagic
* Artery ruptures causing blood to leak within the brain 
* Only way to stop is naturally or to cauterize it 
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Warning signs of stroke:
* Sudden numbness or weakness
* Altered vision
* Dizziness
* Severe headache
* Confusion or difficulty speaking
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Cerebral cortex
* Covering over the brain
* Outermost layer of the brain
* NOT FLAT FOR HUMAN
* Has ridges/bulges
* Gyri
* Sulci
* Grey = cell bodies
* White = axons
* Split into two:
* **Cerebral hemispheres** divided by the **longitudinal fissure**
* Longitudinal fissure - large sulcus
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Gyri
Ridges or raised portions (mountains)
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Sulci
Furrows (valleys)
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Four cerebral hemispheres
* Frontal lobe
* Parietal lobe
* Occipital lobe
* Temporal lobe
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Frontal lobe
* most anterior region 
* Prefrontal cortex - planning, attention much of frontal cortex devoted to motor control 
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Parietal lobe
* Lies between the frontal and occipital lobes; somatosensory functions
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Occipital lobe
* Posterior region, visual processing 
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Temporal lobe
* Lateral region, auditory processing
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Lateral (sylvian) fissure
* boundary of the temporal lobe
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Longitudinal fissure
* Splits the left and right hemisphere
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Central sulcus
* Divides the frontal lobe from the parietal lobe
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Corpus callosum
* a bundle of axons that connects the two cerebral hemispheres
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Postcentral gyrus
* a strip of parietal cortex posterior to the central sulcus
* primary somatosensory cortex
* In sensory cortex
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Precentral gyrus
* posterior gyrus of **frontal lobe**
* primary motor cortex
* In motor cortex
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Forebrain/cerebral hemispheres
* Basal ganglia
* Limbic system
* Thalamus
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Basal ganglia
* Two major functions: motor system and cognitive process
* Consists of: caudate nucleus, putamen, globus pallidus 
* (Caudate + putamen = Striatum)
* Nigrostriatal pathway 
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Limbic system
* Groups of structure 
* Structures important for emotion and learning 
* Form a border around the brainstem 
* Consists of:
* Amygdala
* Hippocampus(aka seahorse) and fornix(connected fibers)
* Cingulate gyrus
* Olfactory bulb
* Hypothalamus
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Amygdala
* emotion regulation and perception of odor, fear
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Hippocampus(aka seahorse) and fornix(connected fibers)
* learning and memory, emotion is tied to memory 
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Cingulate gyrus
* attention
* processing emotions and behavior regulation
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Olfactory bulb
* sense of smell
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Hypothalamus
* contains nuclei with many functions; also controls pituitary 
* many nuclei
* below thalamus
* motivated behaviors (feeding, drinking, temp regulation, rhythms, sex behavior, sleep)
* connections with limbic system
* input to pituitary gland
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Thalamus
* Single structure 
* Cluster of nuclei that relay sensory information 
* Ex: train station → stuff coming in and stuff going out 
* Lateral geniculate nucleus – visual
* Medial geniculate nucleus – auditory
* Optic nerve into the thalamus and optic tract brings it out 
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Midbrain
* the “house”

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* Tectum(roof)
* Tegmentum (basement)
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Tectum(roof)
*  includes sensory areas: 
* Superior colliculi  - visual processing
* Inferior colliculi  - auditory processing 
* Colliculi - “little hills” - feel little bumps 
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Tegmentum (basement)
* Substantia nigra - connects to basal ganglia, motor system 
* Nigrostriatal tract - degenerates in Perkinson’s Disease 
* Red Nucleus - sensorimotor integration (somewhat middle)
* Periaqueductal gray - around the cerebral aqueduct, pain perception, site of opiate receptors 
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Reticular formation
* involved with sleep and arousal
* Running from hindbrain through midbrain
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Hindbrain
* Certain vital body functions are controlled by the brainstem 
* If we damage the hindbrain you are dead 

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* Cerebellum
* Pons
* Medulla
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Cerebellum
* big structure on back 
* Coordination and control
* Participates in come types of learning
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Pons (bridge)
* fiber crossings 
* Axons going from left ot right side and vise versa 
* Origin of some cranial nerves
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Medulla
* Transition from brain to spinal cord 
* Essential processes such as respiration and heart rate 
* Origin of some cranial nerves
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Ways to study the brain: based on structure
* CT/CAT scans
* MRI scans
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Ways to study the brain: based on function
* fMRI
* PET
* TMS
* MEG (Magnetoencephalography)
* DTI
* EEG
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CT/CAT scans
* (computerized tomography)
* Telling you what the brain looks like 


* Image 
* Measure of X-ray absorption at several position 
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MRI scans
* (magnetic resonance imaging)
* Uses magnets
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fMRI
* (functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging)
* MRI, but looking at function 
* Where in the brain is there a lot of activity 
* Using oxygen 
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PET
* (Positron Emission Tomography)
* Only at high medical center 
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TMS
* (Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation)
* Using magnet to control what is going on in the brain 
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DTI
* (Diffusion Tensor Imaging)
* Shows the circuits 
* Looking at fiber tracts (measuring water in the brain)
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EEG
* (Electroencephalography)
* Put the electrodes on head 
* Useful when measuring sleep patterns
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Senses, understanding, how we understand:
* **Detection** of sense requires **receptors**, specialized for that stimulus modality 
* A protein that whatever the stimulus is can react 
* Ex: hair cells moving can detect wind 
* Stimulus must be **transduced** (changed) into the language that the neurons can speak
* Neurons speak through action potential 
* The “language” of sensory input is in the form of chemicals, sound waves, temperature, etc.
* The “language” of neurons includes action potentials, depolarization, hyperpolarization
* The concept of **labeled lines(what she drew)** says that the brain recognizes distinct senses because action potentials travel along separate nerve tracts.
* When information gets to the brain it will based on method of **coding**
* Coding is done in the cerebral cortex!!!!
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Sensory transduction
* The detector is able to take stimulus energy and convert it to polarization or depolarization 
* Uses ionotropic or metabotropic receptors 
* **Generator potentials** = local changes in membrane potential, resemble EPSPs
* The detector is able to take stimulus energy and convert it to polarization or depolarization 
  * Uses ionotropic or metabotropic receptors 
* **Generator potentials** = local changes in membrane potential, resemble EPSPs
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Labeled lines
* Sensory information going to the brain to be coded
* Stimulus binds to a receptor to allow ion channels to open, action potentials start happening then labeled lines 
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Pacinian corpuscle
* Related to the **touch to skin**
* Before touched, at rest
* A stimulus to the corpuscle opens sodium channels and produces a graded generator potential
* Smaller stimulus, smaller response
* Bigger stimulus, bigger response
* If the potential is big enough, a threshold is reached, and an action potential is **generated**.
* Responds to vibration and pressure
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Vestibular system
* Related to sound 
* Receptors respond to **mechanical stimuli** which indicate position and movement of head
* Also helps with balance
* Could have spontaneous action potential firing, moving head can increase or decrease it 
* Vestibular neuron normally active
* Activity increases or decreases, depending on which direction hair cells bend