Cognition Exam 3

Kosslyn (1976)

Yes/No Questions About Mental Images (reaction time).
Conclusion: People can think about cats via imagery and concept.

Kosslyn, Ball, & Reiser (1978)

memorize fictional map; linear relationship between distance and RT.
Conclusion: Doubling distance --\> double scan time

Mental Rotation Task Results

Greater rotation \---\> slower RT, nearly perfect correlation.

Nature of Mental Images

Relationship between imagery "travel time" and "travel distance" (more distance \---\> more time). Images seem to preserve spatial layout regardless of task

Functional Equivalence

the equating of items functionally as opposed to literally between imagery and perception

Vivid Imagers

Those who have richer experiences with visual images

Non-Imagers

Those with poor to even lack of true visual images

Eidetic Imagery and Memory

Extremely detailed visual imagery and recall of visual images - very rare

Image Files

Instructions contain in LTM for how to construct an active mental image. May represent visual information in terms of propositions

Verbal Coding of Images

Participants drew image to align better with verbal description and/or label provided
Carmichael and Colleages 1932

Dual Coding - High Imagery Words

When retrieval from LTM is needed, either representation works and doubles the chance of successful memory search

Dual Coding - Low Imagery Words

Only a verbal code

Imagery and Elaborative Coding

Imagery can ai in encoding information into LTM via mnemonics, related concepts etc

Complexity of Human Language

3 Key features and can express a wider range of ideas and concepts

Psycholinguistics

Psychological scientific study of language and how its acquired, produced, and comprehended.

Phonemes

Differences in sound which contribute to meaning

Phonological Rules

How phonemes can be combined, each language differs in \# of phonemes and rules

Orthography

Study of how symbols (graphemes) are combined to extract meaning via sounds and semantics. Different systems such as pictographic, logographic, and alphabetic

Morphemes

Smallest meaningful unit in a language

Free Morpheme

Exists on its own as a full unit

Bound Morpheme

Attached to another morpheme to derive meaning, such as a suffix or a prefix

Syntax

The structures of sentences and their rules. The organization of parts of speech which constitute language

Syntactic Recursion

There is no limit to the number of times we embed one sentence into another.

Semantics

What the meaning is/what is being conveyed

Deep Structure

Underlying, conveys the meaning of the sentence

Surface Structure

Phrasing, wording and arrangment

Speech Perception

Extremely complex environment often interferes with speech signal (noise). Variability of speech signal and individual differences in speech styles

Coarticulation

Bending of phonemes at word boundaries. Production of each phoneme is slightly altered depending on sounds that come before and after.

Catergorical Perception

There is a tendency to categorize/identify speech sounds

Phonemic Restoration Effect

Can fill in missing information if a speaker coughs/mumbles etc.

Ganong Effect

Listener's perception of ambiguous speech sound depended on surrounding context

McGurk Effect

When the visual information does not match the auditory signal. What's perceived is often different than both.

Prosody

Aspects of sounds of speech not directly associated with the spoken words themselves. The extra information adds a layer of meaning

Prosodic Factors

Influences the meaning of an utterance. Primarily a right hemispheric function

Stress

Emphasis given to syllable, can convey emotionality

Sarcasm

Unique usage of stress. Stressed differently than sincere statements

Intonation

The use of pitch, such as "up-talking" or denoting a question

Rate

Speech speed of articulation altering the length and number of pauses between/during utterances. Can alter meaning

Word Superiority Effect

Faster response to words vs nonword, faster response to letters in words vs in isolation

Dual Route Model - Reading

Having two ways of processing and converting print to speech

Phonological Route - Reading

Useful when encountering a regular word, typically the first route.
AKA Non-lexical route

Connectionist Model

All in one route with multiple layers, one path and parallel processing.

Speech Errors

Not common but everyone makes them on occasion. Factors include fatigue, anxiety, substances etc

Generalization in Speech Errors

Elements that are more similar --\> more likely to make errors

Phonological Bias

SLIP technique

Lexical Bias Effect

Induced errors that results in words occur more often than resulting in nonwords

Self Repairs

Spontaneous interruption of speech to correct and error

Interrupt

Most often done immediately following error by interrupting ourselves

Editing Expression

"Um", "Oh", "Uh"

Repair

Retracing to before error, starting over completely, or instant correction

Four Maxims

Quality (Truthful), Relation (staying on topic), Manner (clear, precise), Quantity (given info need to continue).
Grice 1975

Bilingualism

Most studied type of multilingualism

Simultaneous Bilingualism

Two languages acquired/learned at the same time

Sequential Bilingualism

Acquisition of language 2 after language 1/native language. Often via schooling or work

Broca's Area

Speech production (output)

Wernicke's Area

Speech comprehension (input)

Concept Center

Location in the bread where meaning is stored. Older analog to modern mental lexicon

Broca's Aphasia

Normal comprehension. Speech has meaning but difficult and effortful to produce

Wernicke's Aphasia

Speech sounds normal but no meaning (word salad)

Conduction Aphasia

Disconnection syndrome. Damage leads to inability to relay information from one brain area to another.
Unable to repeat what was heard, but comprehension and production is normal

Modern Views

Much more complex, more elaborate processing that occurs in both left and right hemispheres

Alexia

Reading deficits from brain damage. Acquired dyslexia

Agraphia

Writing deficits from brain damage

Surface Alexia

Can read nonword, cannot read irregular words. Direct route is disrupted whereas the phonological route is intact.

Phonological Alexia

Can manually or orally spell regular learned words OR unfamiliar/new words. Disruption of phonological route

Lexical Agraphia

Can spell any regular word or pronounceable nonword but cannot spell irregular words. Disruption of direct route

Phonological Agraphia

Can manually or orally spell regular learned words OR previously learned irregular words but cannot spell nonwords or unfamiliar words. Disruption of phonological route

Motor Aprosodia

Prosodic version of Broca's aphasia. Difficulty producing prosodic factors.

Sensory Aprosodia

Prosodic version of Wernicke's aphasia. Difficulty comprehending prosodic factors.

Auditory Verbal Agnosia

Inability to recognize spoken words due to bilateral temporal lobe damage

Left Hemispheric Function

Word production and comprehension
Literal language
Fine coding

Right Hemispheric Function

Figurative language, humor and prosody
Pragmatics
Course coding

Foreign Accent Syndrome

Abnormal stress patterns for one's native language. Distorted vowel and consonant production.

Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis

Language is related to how we think about our world

Hypercognized

Numerous words, concepts etc for emotions important to a culture

Hypocognized

Lack of words or detailed concepts for emotions unimportant or deemphasized to a culture

Emotion

Inferred, complex sequence of reactions to a stimulus. Functional and useful

Appraisal

the interpretation and evaluation of information provided to the brain by the senses

Basic Emotions

Fundamental, naturally occurring entities. Has to be universal for all humans.

Problems with Basic Emotions

Difficult to study (subjective)
Many emotions have a similar physiological response

James-Lange Theory

Emotion is perception

Cannon-Bard Theory

Physiological response is too slow to label perception of emotion

Schachter-Singer Theory

Interpretations of physiological response to emotional stimuli varies due to context

Motivation

Purpose/cause of an action. Often times, emotion motivates behavior

Hedonic Principle

All people motivated to experience pleasure and not pain

Approach

The motivation to experience a positive outcome

Avoidance

Motivation to not experience a negative outcome. Tends to be more powerful than approach.

Extrinsic

Take actions towards external stimuli

Intrinisc

The action is the reward/internally generated

HPA Axis

Hypothalamus --\> Pituitary Gland --\> Adrenal Cortex --\> Cortisol

Emotional Amygdala

Detection of emotional information from environment (initial emotional appraisal of stimuli).

Slow Pathway

Thalamus --\> Cortex --\> Amygdala
More detailed processing

Fast Pathway

Thalamus --\> Amygdala
Immediate response

Dopaminergic Pathway

Midbrain --\> Nucleus Accumbens --\> Prefrontal Cortex
Related to addictive behaviors

Emotional Regulation

the ability to control when and how emotions are expressed

Process Model

Strategies for regulating emotions

Situation Focused

Regulate emotions via seeking out, avoiding, or changing circumstances

Situation Selection

Deciding whether to enter a given situation, knowing what emotion is likely to result.

Situation Modification

Enter the situation but actively change it to achieve desired emotional state.

Psychological Inoculation

Exposure to milder versions of situations can be helper for future situations