Psychology Key Terms and Research Methods

Vocabulary flashcards covering major perspectives, research methodology, statistical concepts, ethical guidelines, and assessment types in introductory psychology.

Psychodynamic Perspective

An approach to psychology emphasizing unconscious drives, conflicts, and early childhood experiences in shaping personality and behavior.

Behavioral Perspective

An approach to psychology focusing on observable behaviors and how they are learned through conditioning, reinforcement, and environmental interactions.

Humanistic Perspective

An approach to psychology emphasizing personal growth, self-actualization, human potential, and free will.

Cognitive Perspective

An approach to psychology centered on internal mental processes, including perception, thinking, memory, problem-solving, and language.

Biological Perspective

An approach to psychology examining the neurological, genetic, and physiological mechanisms that underlie behavior and mental processes.

Evolutionary Perspective

An approach to psychology explaining human behaviors and mental traits as functional adaptations shaped by natural selection over time.

Sociocultural Perspective

An approach to psychology analyzing how social environments, cultural norms, and group dynamics influence individual thought and behavior.

Biopsychosocial Perspective

An integrative approach that considers biological, psychological, and social-cultural factors in understanding human behavior and mental health.

Confirmation Bias

The tendency to search for, interpret, favor, and recall information in a way that confirms pre-existing beliefs or hypotheses.

Hindsight Bias

The inclination to perceive an event as having been predictable or obvious after it has already occurred (the 'I knew it all along' phenomenon).

Overconfidence

The tendency to overestimate the accuracy of one's knowledge, beliefs, or abilities.

Hypothesis

A precise, testable prediction about the expected relationship between two or more variables.

Experimenter Bias

A researcher's expectations or subjective preferences influencing the design, conduct, or interpretation of a study's results.

Single-Blind Study

An experimental procedure in which participants do not know whether they are in the treatment or control group, but researchers do.

Double-Blind Study

An experimental design in which both the participants and the research staff are unaware of which participants received the treatment or placebo.

Placebo Condition

A control group setting where participants receive an inactive treatment to gauge the psychological effects of expecting treatment.

Sample

A smaller group of participants selected from a larger population to participate in a study.

Representative Sample

A sample that accurately reflects the key characteristics and demographic distribution of the broader population.

Random Sample

A sampling technique in which every member of the target population has an equal probability of selection.

Sample Bias

A flaw in sampling methodology that results in an unrepresentative sample, favoring certain group members over others.

Generalizability

The degree to which the findings from a research study sample can be accurately applied to the broader target population.

Falsifiable

The capacity of a scientific statement, theory, or hypothesis to be proven false through empirical testing.

The American Psychological Association (APA)

The major professional and scientific organization representing psychology in the United States, providing ethical guidelines and research standards.

Mean

A measure of central tendency calculated by dividing the sum of all data values by the total number of values.

Median

A measure of central tendency representing the exact middle value when a set of data is ordered from lowest to highest.

Mode

A measure of central tendency indicating the most frequently occurring value in a dataset.

Range

A measure of variation computed by finding the difference between the highest and lowest scores in a dataset.

Normal Curve

A symmetrical, bell-shaped distribution curve where most scores cluster near the mean, and fewer scores appear near the extremes.

Standard Deviation

A calculated metric of variation indicating how much data points typically diverge from the mean of a dataset.

Percentile Rank

A value indicating the percentage of scores in a distribution that fall at or below a given score.

Bimodal Distribution

A frequency distribution containing two distinct high points or modes.

Institutional Review Boards (IRB)

An administrative body established to protect the rights, welfare, and safety of human research subjects by reviewing study proposals.

Informed Consent

An ethical process in which research participants are informed of the study's nature, risks, and benefits before voluntarily agreeing to participate.

Informed Assent

The willingness to participate in research expressed by minors or individuals unable to give legal consent, alongside legal guardian consent.

Confidentiality

The ethical rule that personal information and identities of research participants must be protected and kept private.

Naturalistic Observation

A descriptive research method involving the observation and recording of subjects' behaviors in natural environments without intervention.

Case Study

An in-depth, detailed examination of a single subject, group, or event over a period of time.

Correlation Coefficient

A statistical index ranging from $-1.00$ to $+1.00$ measuring the strength and direction of a relationship between two variables.

Experimental Method

A scientific design in which independent variables are manipulated to observe their causal effects on dependent variables under controlled conditions.

Independent Variable

The experimental factor manipulated or varied by the researcher to determine its causal effect.

Dependent Variable

The outcome variable measured by the researcher to evaluate the effects of independent variable manipulation.

Confounding Variable

An uncontrolled extraneous variable that changes alongside the independent variable, potentially distorting the study's results.

Operational Definitions

Clear, explicit specifications of exact operations and procedures used to measure or manipulate research variables.

Experimental Group

The group of subjects in an experiment who are exposed to the independent variable or active treatment.

Control Group

The group of subjects in an experiment who do not receive the experimental treatment, providing a comparison baseline.

Random Assignment

The allocation of participants to experimental or control conditions by chance to minimize pre-existing individual differences.

Placebo Effect

A phenomenon where participants experience measurable improvements or changes based purely on expectations rather than active treatment.

Deception

The intentional withholding of true research objectives or manipulation of details, allowable ethically only under strict necessity and with debriefing.

Debriefing

A post-study discussion where researchers disclose the experiment's purpose, details, and any deceptions used to participants.

Article Analysis Question (AAQ)

An assessment format requiring students to read, analyze, and evaluate published psychological literature or research articles.

Evidence-Based Question (EBQ)

An assessment prompt requiring students to construct explanations or arguments using direct scientific data and empirical evidence.