IB Psychology Paper 1 Review - Cognitive Approach

MODELS OF MEMORY - Multi Store Model

Peterson and Peterson (1959)

The study by Peterson and Peterson (1959) aimed to investigate the duration of short-term memory (STM) and to provide empirical evidence supporting the multi-store model of memory.

24 psychology students participated in the experiment. Participants were presented with trigrams (three-letter nonsense syllables, e.g., TGH, CLS) to memorize. To prevent rehearsal, participants were asked to count backward in threes or fours from a random number until a signal (a red light) prompted them to recall the trigram. This technique is known as the Brown-Peterson task. The time intervals between hearing the trigram and recalling it varied: 3, 6, 9, 12, 15, or 18 seconds. The dependent variable was the number of trigrams correctly recalled after each time interval.

• After 3 seconds, 80% of the trigrams were recalled correctly.

• After 6 seconds, recall dropped to 50%.

• After 18 seconds, less than 10% of the trigrams were recalled correctly.

Short-term memory has a limited duration of approximately 18 seconds when rehearsal is prevented.

MODELS OF MEMORY - Working Memory Model

Klingberg et al (2005)

The study by Klingberg et al. (2005) aimed to investigate whether computer-based training could improve working memory capacity in children with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) and reduce symptoms of inattention and hyperactivity.

42 children diagnosed with ADHD participated in the study. The study was a natural experiment with two groups:

• One group played a computer game specifically designed to improve working memory, with increasing difficulty levels.

• The other group played a similar game but without the working memory enhancement features.

Participants played the games for approximately 40 minutes a day, five days a week, over five weeks. Three months after the intervention, follow-up assessments were conducted. Working memory capacity was assessed before and after the intervention. Parents reported changes in symptoms of inattention and hyperactivity.

Children in the group with the working memory-enhancing game showed significant improvements in working memory capacity. Parents reported reduced symptoms of inattention and hyperactivity in these children.

SCHEMA THEORY

Stone et al (1997)

The study by Stone et al. (1997) aimed to investigate the perceptual confirmation of racial stereotypes in sports, specifically focusing on how stereotypes influence evaluations of athletes' abilities.

51 undergraduate students from Princeton University participated in the study. Participants listened to an audio recording of a college basketball game. They were provided with a folder containing a photograph of the player, which varied in race (Black or White) and perceived athleticism (athletic or non-athletic). After listening to the game, participants completed a questionnaire evaluating the player’s athletic abilities, individual performance, and contribution to the team's success. The evaluations were analyzed to determine how the player's perceived race influenced participants' ratings.

When the player was perceived as Black, participants rated him higher in physical ability and team performance. When he was perceived as White, participants rated him higher in basketball intelligence and hustle. These results suggest that participants relied on racial stereotypes to guide their evaluations of the player's abilities.

THINKING/DECISION MAKING

Bechara et al (2000)

The study by Bechara et al. (2000) aimed to investigate the role of the ventromedial prefrontal cortex (vmPFC) in decision-making.

The study included two groups: 17 healthy controls and 8 patients with lesions in their vmPFC. Participants completed the Iowa Gambling Task (IGT), a decision-making test involving four decks of cards. Two decks had high initial rewards but high long-term risks, while the other two decks had low initial rewards but low long-term risks. Participants selected cards from these decks over 100 trials, aiming to maximize their monetary gains. The researchers analyzed participants' ability to shift their choices from the high-risk decks to the low-risk decks over time.

Healthy participants gradually learned to avoid the high-risk decks and chose more cards from the low-risk decks, demonstrating an ability to evaluate long-term consequences. Participants with vmPFC lesions failed to shift their choices and continued selecting cards from the high-risk decks, indicating impaired decision-making.

RECONSTRUCTIVE MEMORY

Loftus and Palmer (1974)

The study by Loftus and Palmer (1974) aimed to investigate how the wording of questions can influence eyewitness memory, particularly focusing on the effects of leading questions on the recall of speed and events in a car crash.

The study involved 45 American students in the first experiment and 150 students in the second experiment.

• Experiment 1:

  • Participants watched seven short films of traffic accidents.

  • After viewing, they were asked to estimate the speed of the cars using different verbs in the critical question: "About how fast were the cars going when they [smashed/collided/bumped/hit/contacted] each other?"

• Experiment 2:

  • Participants watched a film of a car accident and were asked similar questions about speed.

  • A week later, they were asked whether they saw broken glass in the film (there was no broken glass).

The independent variable was the verb used in the critical question. The dependent variable was the participants' speed estimates and their responses about the presence of broken glass.

• Experiment 1:

  • The verb used influenced speed estimates. For example, "smashed" elicited higher speed estimates than "hit."

• Experiment 2:

  • Participants who heard "smashed" were more likely to report seeing broken glass, even though none was present.

BIAS IN THINKING/DECISION MAKING

Cohen et al (1981)

The study by Cohen et al. (1981) aimed to investigate how schemas influence memory, particularly whether people are more likely to remember schema-consistent information.

96 college students participated in the study. Participants watched a video of a woman having dinner with her husband. Half of the participants were told that the woman was a librarian, while the other half were told she was a waitress. After watching the video, participants were asked to recall details about the woman. The researchers analyzed the details participants remembered, focusing on whether the recalled information aligned with stereotypes about librarians (e.g., liking classical music, reading books) or waitresses (e.g., drinking beer, eating hamburgers).

Participants were more likely to remember details consistent with the stereotype of the occupation they were told (e.g., librarian or waitress). This suggests that schemas influence both the encoding and retrieval of information, reinforcing stereotypes.

INFLUENCE OF EMOTION ON COGNITION

Buchanan and Lovallo (2001)

The study by Buchanan and Lovallo (2001) aimed to investigate how cortisol, a stress hormone, influences memory for emotionally arousing material in humans.

48 healthy adults (24 males and 24 females) participated in the study. 48 healthy adults (24 males and 24 females) participated in the study. After receiving cortisol or placebo, participants were shown a series of images categorized as emotionally arousing (pleasant or unpleasant) or neutral. After receiving cortisol or placebo, participants were shown a series of images categorized as emotionally arousing (pleasant or unpleasant) or neutral. One week later, their memory for the images was tested without prior notice of the memory test. Memory performance was assessed based on the number of images participants could recall, with a focus on emotionally arousing versus neutral images.

Both groups (cortisol and placebo) remembered emotionally arousing images better than neutral ones. Participants in the cortisol group showed significantly better memory for emotionally arousing images compared to the placebo group. Elevated cortisol levels during memory encoding enhance the long-term recall of emotionally arousing material.