Princeton MCAT Psych/Soc Glossary Terms G-P

Phineas Gage

famous case of a man who suffered damage to his prefrontal cortex after a railroad tie blasted through his head

Game theory

a theory used to predict large, complex systems, such as the overall behavior of a population

Ganglion

a clump of gray matter (unmyelinated neuron cell bodies) found in the peripheral nervous system

Gender bias in medicine

occurs when women and men receive different treatment for the same disease or illness

Gender conditioning

the socialization of gender roles is also known as this

Gender schema theory

the study of how gender beliefs become socialized in society

General fertility rate

the annual number of live births per 1000 women of childbearing age within a population

General intelligence

foundational base of intelligence that supports more specialized abilities

Generalization

in classical conditioning, the process by which stimuli similar to a conditioned stimulus elicit the conditioned response

Generalized anxiety disorder (GAD)

a psychological disorder characterized by tension or anxiety much of the time about many issues, but without the presence of panic attacks

Generalized other

when a person tries to imagine what is expected of them from society, they are taking on the perspective of the generalized other

Genotype

the genetic makeup of an organism

Gestalt psychology

a theory that the brain processes information in a holistic manner

Global inequality

the extent to which wealth is distributed unevenly among the world’s population

Global stratification

a comparison of the wealth, economic stability, and power of various countries

Gray matter

unmyelinated neuron cell bodies and short unmyelinated axons

Group

a collection of people (as few as 2) who regularly interact and identify.

Group polarization

the phenomenon where groups tend to intensify the preexisting views of their members until the average view is more extreme than it initially was

Group pressure (peer pressure)

pressure exerted by a group that causes one to change behaviors, values, attitudes, or beliefs

Groupthink

a phenomenon in which the desire for group harmony results in an easy consensus, even if the final decision is not the best one

Gustatory receptors

chemoreceptors on the tongue that respond to chemicals in the food

Habit

action that is performed repeatedly until it becomes automatic

Habituation

a decrease in response to a stimulus after repeated presentations

Hair cells

sensory receptors found in the inner ear that respond to vibrations in the cochlea caused by sound waves and changes in position and acceleration (used for balance)

Hallucination

a false sensory perception that occurs while a person is conscious (not during sleep or delirium)

Hallucinogens

class of drugs that distort perceptions in the absence of any sensory input, creating hallucinations or altered sensory perceptions

Halo effect

a tendency to believe that people have inherently good or bad natures, rather than looking at individual characteristics.

Harry and Margaret Harlow

researchers known for their controversial experiments with isolated baby monkeys

Health care disparities

the population specific differences in the presence of disease, health outcomes, and quality of health care across different social groups

Heritability

the extent to which a behavior is due to genetic factors

Heuristics

mental shortcuts used for problem solving; sometimes sacrifices accuracy for speed

Hindsight bias

tendency to believe that an event was predictable after it has already occurred

Hippocampus

brain structure located in the medial temporal lobe; plays a key role in forming memories

Histrionic personality disorder

a psychological disorder characterized by a strong desire to be the center of attention

Homogenous

the same throughout; often used to describe a sample in which participants have similar characteristics

Humanistic psychology

a psychological perspective that emphasizes an individual’s inherent drive toward self

Hypnotism

structured interaction in which an individual is instructed to focus attention particular way, relax, and let go

Hypochondriasis

a psychological disorder characterized by a preoccupation with having a serious illness

Hypophysis

the pituitary gland

Hypothalamus

brain structure that is involved in many autonomic processes including body temperature, hunger, thirst, fatigue, and sleep.

Iconic memory

the brief photographic memory for visual information, which decays in a few tenths of a second

Id

according to Freud’s psychoanalytic theory, is the source of energy and instincts that seeks to gain pleasure

Ideal self

constructed out of experiences, expectations, and role models; the person one wishes to be

Identity formation (or individualization)

development of a distinct personality

Illusory correlation

a perceived relationship between two things, even when none exists

Implicit (or procedural ) memory

memory that involves conditioned associations and knowledge of how to do something

Impression management or self presentation

the process whereby people attempt to manage their images by influencing others’ perceptions

In group

a group that an individual belongs to and believes to ne an integral part of who they are

Incentive theory

a theory that suggests that incentives (objects that either induce or discourage behaviors) motivate human behavior

Inclusive fitness

a theory that suggests that cooperation among organisms promotes genetic success

Incongruity

the emotional result when the real self falls short of the ideal self

Infantile amnesia

a lack of explicit memory for events that occurred before the age of roughly 3.5 years

Information processing models

models that use computers as an analogy for understanding cognitive processes such as attention, perception, and memory

Informational social influence

the process of complying to do the right thing because others “know something we don’t know”

Inhibitory postsynaptic potential (IPSP)

slight hyperpolarization of a postsynaptic cell, moving the membrane potential of that cell further from threshold

Insecure attachment

category of attachment styles in which infants are less likely to explore the environment in the presence of the mother and less likely to be soothed by her

Insight learning

sudden flash of inspiration that provides a solution to a problem

Insomnia

most common sleep disorder, characterized by difficulty falling or staying asleep

Instinct

behaviors that are unlearned and present in fixed patterns throughout a species

Institutional discrimination

unjust practices employed by large organizations that have been codified into operating processes or institutional objectives

Intellectual disability

classification for individuals who have an IQ below 70 and functional impairment in their everyday lives

Intelligence

the ability to learn from experience, problem solve, and adapt to new situations

Intergenerational mobility

a change (increase or decrease) in social class between parents and children within a family

Internal locus of control

an individual’s belief that they can affect outcomes through their own actions

Internal validity

how well designed a study is; how valid it is to draw conclusions from the research baseD on the way its was constructed

Interneuron

a neuron found completely within the central nervous system

Intergenerational mobility

describes the differences in social class between different members of the same generation

Iris

a pigmented membrane found just in the front of the lens of the eyes; regulates the diameter of the pupil in response to the brightness of light

James Lange Theory

theory of emotion in which emotional experience is the result of physiological responses

Just world phenomenon

the tendency to believe that the world is fair and people get what they deserve

Justification of effort

when people modify their attitudes to match their behaviors, specifically those involving effort

K complex

large and slow wave with a duration of half a second that occurs in stage 2 sleeping

Kinship

familial relationships including blood ties, family ties, and common ancestry

Kohlberg’s stages of moral development

six developmental stages of moral reasoning, which form the basis of ethical behavior

Language

a symbolic system that is codified for communication

Language acquisition

the process by which infants learn to understand and speak their native language

Language acquisition device (LAD)

the nativist theory proposes that there is a theoretical one of these somewhere in our brains that is responsible for learning a language during the critical period of language acquisition (before adolescence)

Latent content

the unconscious drives and wishes that are difficult to express and underlie dreams

Latent functions

the unintended or less recognizable consequence or a social structure

Latent learning

learning that takes place in the absence of any observable behavior to show that it has occurred

Learned helplessness

a condition where an individual does not act even though there are opportunities to avoid unpleasant circumstances or gain positive rewards

Libido

the life instinct, which drives behaviors focus on survival, growth, creativity, pain avoidance, and seeking pleasure

Life course perspective

sociological theory that investigates key events in a person’s life and how they unfold over time and lead to a person’s development

Life expectancy

the number of years that an individual ata given age can expect to live at present mortality rates

Linguistic relativity hypothesis

asserts that the language one speaks determines their thoughts and perceptions of the world

Long term memory

information that is retained long term, potentially indefinitely

Long term potentiation

an increase in synaptic strength between two neurons following simultaneous firing

Looking glass self

the idea that a person’s sense of self develops from interpersonal interactions with others in society and the perceptions of others

Major depressive disorder

a psychological disorder characterized by one or more depressive episodes, in which a person has felt worse than usual for most of the day, nearly every day for at least two weeks

Manic episode

an experience of an abnormal, euphoric, unrestrained, or irritable mood

Manifest content

according to freud, the overt storylines of dreams

Marginal poverty

poverty that is due to circumstantial conditions, such as a lack of stable employment

Karl Marx

founder of Conflict Theory who argued that societies progress through class struggle between those who control production and those who provide the labor for production

Maslow’s Hierarchy of needs

Abraham Maslow’s pyramid of motivation factors from physiological needs at the base, progressively up to higher level needs such as a self actualization that must be met in order

Master status

the status that dominates other statuses and determines an individual's position in society

Material culture

consists of the physical objects that are particular to a culture

Matricarchy

a social system where females are the primary authority figures

Matrilineal descent

a system of lineage in which the relatives on the mother’’s side are considered most important

Mechanoreceptor

a sensory receptor that responds to mechanical disturbances, such as shape changes (being squashed, bent, pulled)

Meditation

mindfulness technique for training attention in a particular way