Affective and Psychiatric Disorders

What is the difference between visual and auditory hallucinations?

Visual hallucinations involve seeing things that aren't there, while auditory hallucinations involve hearing sounds or voices that do not exist.

How do hallucinations differ from delusions?

Hallucinations are sensory perceptions without external stimuli, while delusions are false beliefs that are strongly held despite evidence to the contrary.

What are the common types of delusions observed in psychiatric disorders?

persecution, grandeur, reference, and control.

What are the major neurotransmitters involved in psychiatric disorders?

serotonin, dopamine, and norepinephrine

How is schizophrenia characterized?

hallucinations, delusions, disorganized thinking, and negative symptoms.

What are the proposed risk factors for schizophrenia?

genetic predisposition, prenatal exposure to infections, psychosocial stressors, and substance abuse.

What are the negative symptoms of schizophrenia?

lack of motivation, reduced emotional expression, and social withdrawal

What are the positive symptoms of schizophrenia?

hallucinations, delusions, and disorganized speech or behavior.

What are the three major divisions of schizophrenia?

paranoid, disorganized, and catatonic.

What are the neuropathophysiological mechanisms mediating schizophrenia?

dysregulation of dopamine pathways, structural brain abnormalities, and neuroinflammation.

What is Major Depressive Disorder (MDD) characterized by?

severe symptoms

What is Dysthymia?

chronic form of depression,

What is PMDD ?

severe premenstrual symptoms

What is DMDD ?

severe temper outbursts in children.

How do you distinguish Bipolar Disorder from major depression?

Bipolar Disorder includes episodes of mania or hypomania, while major depression does not.

What are the three major types of bipolar disorder?

Bipolar I (manic episodes), Bipolar II (hypomanic and depressive episodes), and Cyclothymia (chronic fluctuating mood disturbances).

What is the mechanism of lithium in treating bipolar disorder?

stabilizes mood by modulating neurotransmitter release and enhancing neuroprotective factors.

How are anxiety disorders characterized?

excessive fear or worry that interferes with daily functioning.

What is the difference between subjective and objective anxiety disorder-induced manifestations?

Subjective manifestations are personal feelings of anxiety, while objective manifestations are observable behaviors such as restlessness or avoidance.

Compare and contrast Generalized Anxiety Disorder (GAD) and Panic Disorder.

GAD involves chronic, excessive worry about various aspects of life, while Panic Disorder is characterized by recurrent panic attacks and fear of future attacks.

What are the neuropathophysiological mechanisms mediating anxiety disorders?

dysregulation of serotonin and norepinephrine systems, as well as hyperactivity in the amygdala.

What causes Wernicke-Korsakoff Syndrome?

Thiamine (vitamin B1) deficiency, often associated with chronic alcoholism.

What are the major brain lesions/pathologies mediating symptoms of Wernicke-Korsakoff Syndrome?

Lesions occur primarily in the thalamus and hypothalamus, leading to symptoms such as confusion, memory loss, and coordination problems.

Contrast Wernicke's Disease vs. Korsakoff psychosis.

Wernicke's Disease is acute and reversible with treatment, while Korsakoff psychosis is chronic and often irreversible due to permanent brain damage.

What are affective/mood disorders characterized by?

Imbalances of thought, mood, and/or behaviors that interfere with the ability to function.

Name two common disorders discussed in affective/psychiatric disorders.

Schizophrenia and Depressive Disorders.

What are hallucinations?

Sensory perceptions with a compelling sense of reality, occurring without external stimuli.

What are the two types of visual hallucinations?

Release and Ictal.

What characterizes auditory hallucinations?

Misperceptions of sound, such as tinnitus, buzzing, music, or voices.

What is a delusion?

A false belief that is persistently accepted despite evidence to the contrary.

What are some types of delusions?

persecution, influence, ill health, grandeur, poverty, and possession.

What neurochemicals are involved in the mediation of psychiatric disorders?

Serotonin and Dopamine.

What are the criteria for diagnosing schizophrenia?

Two or more psychotic manifestations lasting 6 months.

What are positive symptoms of schizophrenia?

Hallucinations, delusions, and disorganized behavior.

What are negative symptoms of schizophrenia?

Absence of normal social behaviors, alogia, avolition, apathy, affective flattening, and anhedonia.

What are the three divisions of schizophrenia?

Paranoid, Disorganized, and Catatonic

What is Major Depressive Disorder (MDD)?

A condition characterized by loss of interest in activities, suicidal thoughts, and various cognitive and physical symptoms.

What is required for a diagnosis of Major Depressive Disorder?

Presence of symptoms most of the day, nearly every day for at least 2 weeks.

What are some proposed risk factors for schizophrenia?

Childhood trauma, malnutrition, long-term cannabis use, and psychosocial determinants.

What is the impact of schizophrenia on social functioning?

Impaired ability to reason, problem solve, and interact socially.

What are the clinical manifestations of schizophrenia?

Positive symptoms like hallucinations and delusions, and negative symptoms like lack of motivation and emotional expression.

What neurophysiological changes are associated with schizophrenia?

Dysregulation of dopaminergic and serotonergic systems, cortical gray matter loss, and abnormal cortical thinning.

What are the common symptoms of depressive disorders?

Loss of interest, suicidal thoughts, lack of appetite, and sleep disturbances.

What is the role of GABA in psychiatric disorders?

Lower production has been linked to dysfunction in the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex.

What is the significance of the DSM-5?

It is an evidence-based manual that provides diagnoses for mental illnesses.

What are the effects of auditory hallucinations in psychiatric disorders?

Voices may comment on behavior and are often critical or negative.

What is the difference between hallucinations and delusions?

Hallucinations are perception abnormalities, while delusions are thought abnormalities.

What is Persistent Depressive Disorder (Dysthymia)?

A chronic but mild state of depression lasting at least 2 years, characterized by a 'roller-coaster' presentation of major to less severe depression, along with symptoms like altered sleep patterns, fatigue, altered eating patterns, inability to concentrate, poor self-esteem, and feelings of hopelessness.

What triggers Premenstrual Dysphoric Disorder (PMDD)?

Hormonal fluctuations occurring a few days to 2 weeks before menstruation, leading to symptoms like exhaustion, anger, insecurity, and lack of desire for relationships.

What is Disruptive Mood Dysregulation Disorder (DMDD)?

A disorder in children and adolescents characterized by extreme moodiness, including persistent anger, temper outbursts, and irritability, with symptoms present for 12 or more months.

What are the main components of Bipolar Disorder?

major depression symptoms along with the cardinal symptom of mania, characterized by mood swings from high (euphoria) to low (depression).

What defines Bipolar I Disorder?

one or more manic episodes with elevated or irritable mood alternating with major depressive episodes, often involving risky behavior and extreme symptoms.

How does Bipolar II Disorder differ from Bipolar I Disorder?

major depressive episodes and at least one hypomanic episode, which is a milder form of mania lasting at least 4 days.

What is Cyclothymia?

A milder form of bipolar disorder involving periods of hypomania and nonpsychotic depression lasting for at least 2 years in adults or 1 year in children and adolescents.

What is rapid cycling in Bipolar Disorder?

A pattern characterized by four or more manic episodes within a year, with remission replaced by pronounced depressive symptoms.

What are common treatments for Bipolar Disorder?

Lithium is the gold standard treatment, with Valproate and Carbamazepine also prescribed.

What characterizes Generalized Anxiety Disorder (GAD)?

Excessive anxiety and worry that interferes with daily activities for at least 6 months, often accompanied by symptoms like tension, autonomic hyperactivity, fatigue, and sleep disturbances.

What are Panic Attacks?

Unexpected surges of intense fear or discomfort with physical symptoms such as palpitations and shortness of breath, lasting 15-30 minutes, often leading to feelings of losing control.

What is Wernicke-Korsakoff Syndrome?

An affective-like disorder resulting from chronic alcohol use, characterized by brain lesions, cortical atrophy, and symptoms like confusion and severe memory impairment.

What are the symptoms of Wernicke's Disease?

Thiamine deficiency leading to acute weakness, paralysis of ocular muscles, nystagmus, ataxia, confusion, and peripheral neuropathy.

What distinguishes Korsakoff Psychosis?

Irreversible severe memory impairment and learning difficulties, often involving confabulations to fill memory gaps.

What are the main neurotransmitters involved in anxiety disorders?

GABA, norepinephrine (NE), serotonin, and dopamine (DA)

What is the role of the sympathetic nervous system in anxiety disorders?

It is activated during the stress response, leading to physical symptoms like increased heart rate and blood pressure.

What are the first-line treatments for anxiety disorders?

SSRIs/SNRIs or 5-HT1a agonists are considered first-line treatments.

What are the symptoms of a manic episode?

Increased talkativeness, racing thoughts, grandiosity, distractibility, delusions, and overactivity.

What is the significance of the prefrontal cortex in bipolar disorder?

Abnormalities are linked to mood dysregulation

What is the diagnostic criteria for Panic Disorder?

Recurrent panic attacks with physical symptoms and a fear of losing control or dying.