AP Psychology - Unit 4

learning

a relatively permanent change in an organism’s behavior due to experience

habituation

an organism’s decreasing response to a stimulus with repeated exposure to it

associative learning

learning that certain events occur together; the events may be two stimuli (as in classical conditioning) or a response and its consequences (as in operant conditioning)

classical conditioning

type of learning in which one learns to link two or more stimuli and anticipate events

behaviorism

view that psychology should be an objective science that studies behavior without reference to mental processes

unconditioned response (UR)

the unlearned, naturally occurring response to the unconditioned stimulus (US), such as salivation when food is in the mouth (classical)

unconditioned stimulus (US)

a stimulus that naturally and automatically triggers a response (classical)

conditioned response (CR)

learned response to a previously neutral but now conditioned stimulus (classical)

conditioned stimulus (CS)

originally irrelevant stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus, comes to trigger a conditioned response (classical)

acquisition

initial stage of classical conditioning, when one links a neutral stimulus to an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus begins triggering the conditioned response; in operant conditioning, the strengthening of a reinforced response

higher-order conditioning

a procedure in which the conditioned stimulus in one conditioning experience is paired with a new neutral stimulus, creating a second (often weaker) conditioned stimulus

extinction

diminishing of a conditioned response; occurs in classical conditioning when an unconditioned stimulus (US) does not follow a conditioned stimulus (CS); occurs in operant conditioning is no longer reinforced

spontaneous recovery

reappearance, after a pause, of an extinguished conditioned response

generalization

tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit similar results

discrimination

the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and stimuli that do not signal an unconditioned stimulus

learned helplessness

the hopelessness and passive resignation an animal or human learns when unable to avoid repeated abrasive events

respondent behavior

the behavior that occurs as an automatic response to a stimulus

operant conditioning

type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforcer or diminished if followed by a punisher

operant behavior

behavior that operates on the environment, producing consequences

law of effect

Thorndike’s principle that behaviors followed by favorable consequences became more likely, and that behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences became less likely

operant chamber

a chamber containing a bar or key that an animal can manipulate to obtain a food or water reinforcer; attached devices record the animal’s rate of bar pressing or key picking

shaping

an operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior

discriminative stimulus

a stimulus that elicits a response after association with reinforcement (in contrast to related stimuli not associated with reinforcement)

reinforcer

any event that strengthens the behavior it follows

positive reinforcement

increasing behaviors by presenting positive stimuli; reinforcer strengthens the response when presented after the response

negative reinforcement

increasing behaviors by stopping or reducing negative stimuli; reinforcer strengthens the response when removed after the response

primary reinforcer

innately reinforcing stimulus, such as one that satisfies a biological need

conditioned reinforcer

a stimulus that gains its reinforcing power through its association with a primary reinforcer

continuous reinforcement

reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs

partial reinforcement

reinforcing a response only part of the time; results in slower acquisition of a response but much greater resistance to extinction than does continuous reinforcement

fixed-ratio schedule

reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses (operant conditioning)

variable-ratio schedule

reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses (operant conditioning)

fixed-interval schedule

reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed (operant conditioning)

variable-interval schedule

reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals (operant conditioning)

punishment

event that decreases the behavior that it follows

cognitive map

mental representation of the layout of one’s environment; ex. rats in a maze

latent learning

learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it

insight

sudden and often novel realization of the solution to a problem

intrinsic motivation

desire to perform a behavior effectively for its own sake

extrinsic motivation

desire to perform a behavior to receive promised rewards or avoid threatened punishment

biofeedback

system for electronically recording, amplifying, and feeding back information regarding a subtle physiological state, such as blood pressure or muscle tension

observational learning

learning by observing others

modeling

process of observing and imitating a specific behavior

mirror neurons

frontal lobe neurons that fire when performing certain actions or when observing another doing so; may enable imitation and empathy

prosocial behavior

positive, constructive, helpful behavior; opposite of antisocial