ATTITUDES

According to instrumental conditioning, what happens to behavior followed by positive consequences

It is more likely to be repeated.

According to instrumental conditioning, what happens to behavior followed by negative consequences

It is not repeated.

What did Insko (1965) show about attitudes and positive feedback

Participants reported a more favorable attitude towards a topic if they had received positive feedback on the same attitude a week earlier.

What happens to an attitude if it is reinforced with positive feedback

The attitude is likely to survive.

Who proposed Self-Perception Theory

Bem, 1972.

How do we gain knowledge of ourselves according to Self-Perception Theory

By making self-attributions.

How do we infer attitudes from our behavior according to Self-Perception Theory

For example, if "I read at least one novel a week," then "I must enjoy reading novels".

Can attitudes be measured directly

No, they can't be seen or measured directly.

What are two challenges in measuring attitudes

Reliability (consistent results over time) and Validity (actually measuring attitudes and not something else).

What are some self-report and experimental paradigms used to reveal attitudes

Attitude scales and the Implicit Association Task.

What are some physiological measures used to reveal attitudes

Skin resistance, heart rate, and pupil dilation.

What are some measures of overt behavior used to reveal attitudes

Frequency of behavior, trends and preferences over various objects, and non-verbal behavior.

Why are attitudes considered important in social psychology

Because they predict behavior.

Attitudes are considered the "crown jewel of social psychology" according to whom

Crano & Prislin, 2006, p.360.

What are some examples of things that form the core of one's self-concept through attitudes

Hobbies, beliefs, politics, music, etc..

What is a potential mismatch observed with attitudes and behavior

Smokers often dislike smoking, understand health risks, and intend to quit, but continue to smoke.

What was the focus of LaPiere's (1934) famous study on racial prejudice

A Chinese couple visited various establishments and received service, but later the establishments stated they would not accept Chinese individuals.

In LaPiere's (1934) study, what percentage of establishments served the Chinese couple

95% of the time.

In LaPiere's (1934) study, what percentage of establishments later replied saying they would not accept members of the Chinese race

92%.

What are some problems to consider regarding the attitude-behavior gap, as exemplified by LaPiere's study

Specifics (same people involved), time (behavior came first), and attitude strength & direct experience.

What did Wicker (1969) find about the correlation between attitudes and behavior in a meta-analysis

Attitudes were weakly correlated with behavior, with an average correlation of .15 across 42 studies.

What did Gregson and Stacey (1981) find regarding attitudes and alcohol consumption

A small positive correlation between general attitudes and alcohol consumption.

What did Sheeran et al. (2016) find about changes in intentions and behavioral changes

Medium-to-large-sized changes in intentions are associated with only small-to-medium-sized behavioral changes.

What seems to be the overall conclusion about attitudes predicting behavior

Attitudes do predict behavior, but the relationship is weaker than first envisaged.

What are three things that impact how well attitudes predict behavior

How strong the attitude is, whether it is formed through direct experience, and how it is measured.

What did Haddock et al. (1999) find regarding attitudes towards assisted dying

Attitudes were influenced by people's direct experience with assisted dying.

What did Davidson and Jaccard (1979) find about the specificity of questions in predicting behavior

Women's general attitudes toward birth control did not predict their use of the contraceptive pill as well as specific attitudes towards using the contraceptive pill within the next two years.

Who summarized the factors impacting how well attitudes predict behavior in 2009

Eysenck.

What theory proposes that people make decisions as a result of rational thought processes and has multiple components

Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB).

Who proposed the Theory of Planned Behavior

Ajzen, 1991.

What are the three main components of the Theory of Planned Behavior that influence intention

Attitude toward the behavior (positive or negative), Subjective Norm (social expectations), and Perceived Behavioral Control (control over actions).

What did Cho and Lee (2015) find when polling Korean and US participants about the Theory of Planned Behavior

Strong evidence for the theoretical constructs but also boundary conditions.

In individualistic cultures, what are behaviors primarily determined by

Self-perceptions or internal beliefs.

In collectivistic cultures, what are behaviors primarily determined by

Social group pressures.

In which type of national culture did personal control have a stronger association with intentions

Individualistic cultures.

In which type of nation did subjective norms have stronger predictive power

Collectivistic nations.

Who proposed Cognitive Dissonance Theory

Festinger, 1957.

What is cognitive dissonance defined as

"Unpleasant state of psychological tension generated when a person has two or more cognitions [thoughts] that are inconsistent or do not fit in together".

When does discomfort/dissonance occur according to Cognitive Dissonance Theory

When there is counter-attitudinal behavior.

What do individuals strive to do when they feel discomfort/dissonance

Reduce dissonance.

How can dissonance be reduced

By changing inconsistent cognitions.

What is Strategy 1 for reducing cognitive dissonance in the example of smoking

Reduce the importance of a cognition, e.g., "I know lots of people who have smoked all of their lives and they haven't got lung cancer".

What is Strategy 2 for reducing cognitive dissonance in the example of smoking

Add a new element, e.g., "I'm addicted, I can't help it. I need to smoke or the stress I'll suffer will be just as unhealthy".

What is Strategy 3 for reducing cognitive dissonance in the example of smoking

Change one element, e.g., "I'll stop smoking!".

What are two dual-process models of persuasion

Elaboration Likelihood Model and Heuristic-Systematic Model.

Who proposed the Elaboration Likelihood Model (ELM)

Petty & Cacioppo, 1986.

In the Elaboration Likelihood Model, what is the central route

When the message is followed closely, with considerable cognitive effort expended, focusing on argument quality and being analytical.

In the Elaboration Likelihood Model, what is the peripheral route

When arguments are not well attended to, and peripheral cues (e.g., attraction) are used.

Which route in the ELM leads to relatively enduring attitude change

Central route.

Which route in the ELM leads to relatively temporary attitude change

Peripheral route.

What question summarizes the research on persuasion according to Hovland et al. (1953)

"WHO says WHAT to WHOM and with what EFFECT?".

Who proposed the Heuristic-Systematic Model

Chaiken, 1980.

In the Heuristic-Systematic Model, what is systematic processing

When a message is attended to carefully, scanning and considering available arguments.

In the Heuristic-Systematic Model, what is heuristic processing

Using cognitive heuristics, such as "statistics don't lie".

What is a key difference between the Elaboration Likelihood Model and the Heuristic-Systematic Model regarding pathways

The Elaboration Likelihood Model suggests pathways are independent, while the Heuristic-Systematic Model implies they could be active at the same time.

What is an attitude defined as by Hogg & Vaughan (2014)

"(a) A relatively enduring organisation of beliefs, feelings and behavioural tendencies towards socially significant objects, events or symbols. (b) A general feeling or evaluation - positive or negative - about some person, object or issue" (p. 150).

What are some real-world applications of knowledge about attitudes

Political campaigns, advertising/sales, and encouraging socially valuable behaviors (e.g., organ donation, voluntary work, environmental responsibility).

According to Hansen et al. (2010), why might a "mortality salient" warning message (e.g., about smoking) make some people want to smoke more

If smoking is a source of self-esteem for them.

When would a "mortality salient" warning message not lead to increased smoking desire

If the smoking behavior is not linked to the individual's self-esteem.

What is an example of smoking being linked to self-esteem

"Smoking allows me to feel valued by others".

What are the three components of attitudes in the Three-Component Model (e.g., Rosenberg & Hovland, 1960)

Affective, Cognitive, and Behavioral.

What does the Affective component of an attitude refer to

Expressions of feelings towards an attitude object.

What does the Cognitive component of an attitude refer to

Expressions of beliefs about an attitude object.

What does the Behavioral component of an attitude refer to

Overt actions/verbal statements concerning behavior.

Give an example of the Cognitive component for an attitude towards eating meat. "It is unhealthy and wrong to eat meat".

Give an example of the Affective component for an attitude towards eating meat. "The thought of eating meat makes me feel sick".

Give an example of the Behavioral component for an attitude towards eating meat. "I will only eat vegetarian food".

What is a "Simple dimension" attitude

An attitude based on one clear reason, e.g., "dogs are so sociable!".

What is a "Complex dimension" attitude

An attitude based on multiple reasons, which can be consistent or inconsistent, e.g., "dogs look well cute and friendly" but "I hate the way they smell".

According to Judd & Lusk (1984), when do attitudes become stronger

If they are complex and evaluated consistently.

According to Judd & Lusk (1984), when do attitudes become weaker or moderate

If they are inconsistent as they become more complex.

Who proposed the four functions of attitudes in 1960

Katz.

What are the four functions of attitudes according to Katz (1960)

Knowledge Function, Utilitarian Function, Ego-defensive Function, and Value Expressive Function.

What is the Knowledge Function of attitudes

To organize and predict the social world, providing a sense of meaning and coherence.

What is the Utilitarian Function of attitudes

To help people achieve positive outcomes and avoid negative outcomes (e.g., right attitude = no punishment).

What is the Ego-defensive Function of attitudes

Protecting one's self-esteem from the harmful world (e.g., justifying a bad habit like smoking because many others smoke).

What is the Value Expressive Function of attitudes

To facilitate the expression of one's core values and self-concept.

Who proposed the Mere Exposure Effect

Robert Zajonc, 1968.

What is the Mere Exposure Effect

Repeated exposure to a stimulus enhances preference for that stimulus.

What did Harrison & Zajonc (1970) find regarding the Mere Exposure Effect

Participants were more likely to say that familiar novel words meant something positive.

How can attitudes be learned from others through classical conditioning

Repeated association, where a previously neutral stimulus elicits a reaction previously elicited only by another stimulus.

How does celebrity endorsement relate to classical conditioning in attitude formation

It transfers the positive image of the celebrity to the product.

What is an example of classical conditioning in attitude formation

Pavlov's dog