2ND year flash

Behaviourism

which views learning as a change in behaviour resulting from responses to environmental stimuli and reinforcement.

Episodic memory

Recalling past events or experiences usually closely linked with sensory and emotional information

Semantic memory

Retaining factual information such as name of capital city

procedural (body) memory

Used learned actions that require no continuous recall, such as riding a bike

Implicit memory

Bringing back an unconscious memory that influences behaviour such as recoiling from a stranger reminiscent of someone unpleasant

constructivism

which sees learners as active participants who construct knowledge through experience, reflection, and social interaction.

cognitivism

which focuses on internal mental processes such as memory, perception, and problem-solving.

connectionism

which explores how learning occurs through networks—both neural and digital—emphasising the role of technology and connectivity in modern education.

humanism

which emphasises personal growth, self-actualisation, and learner-centred approaches that nurture intrinsic motivation.

socialcultrual theory

which highlights the role of social interaction, language, and cultural context in shaping learning.

CONDUCT DISORDER

A disorder characterised by aggression to people and animals

INATTENTION

The presentation characterised by difficulty sustaining attention and organising tasks

LIMITED PROSOCIAL EMOTIONS

A specifier added to conduct disorder

OPPOSITIONAnt DEFIANT disorder

A disorder characterised by an angry and irritable mood

HYPERACTIVITY IMPULSIVITY

The presentation characterised by fidgeting and a difficulty waiting for turn

EQUFINALITY

The principle outlining the diverse pathways to callus unemotinal traits

What does equifinality mean?

Equifinality refers to the concept that there are multiple methods to achieve the same outcome.

What does equifinality indicate about organizational structures?

Equifinality indicates that various structures or combinations of variables can effectively meet the needs of an organization/ person.

neuropsychology

The study of relationships between the brain and behaviour

clinical neuropsychology

An applied branch focused on assessing and treating cognitive and behavioural effects of brain injury or disease

Main purposes of neuropsychological assessment

Diagnosis, description of strengths/weaknesses, prognosis, treatment planning, monitoring recovery, evaluating treatment

hindbrain

Cerebellum (motor coordination), brainstem (medulla, pons, reticular formation - vital life functions & arousal)

midbrain

Tectum (visual/auditory reflexes), tegmentum (movement nuclei like substantia nigra)

thalamus

relay for sensory info

Hypothalamus

Homeostasis (hunger, thirst, temperature), hormone regulation via pituitary, fight-or-flight responses.

Common Ingroup Identity Model

A model that reduces intergroup bias by emphasizing a shared overarching identity (e.g., "we're all one group"), extending positive feelings toward former outgroup.

prejudice

An unjustified, often negative attitude toward an individual or group, typically linked to traits like race, gender, age, or culture.

Stereotyping

A cognitive process involving overgeneralized beliefs about a group. Stereotypes aren't always negative—they can be accurate—but often lead to negative prejudgments.

Discrimination

Behavioral action based on prejudice—treating someone unfavorably because of their group membership.

Dual-Process Theory

Our explicit (conscious) beliefs may differ from our implicit (unconscious) biases. The latter can influence behavior subtly, without our awareness.

Implicit Association Test (IAT)

A widely used tool that measures automatic biases by analyzing how quickly someone pairs concepts like "old vs. young" with "good vs. bad." Faster responses to stereotypical pairings indicate implicit associations.

How does discrimination differ from prejudice?

Discrimination is behavior resulting from prejudiced attitudes—it's acting on the bias.

What does dual-process theory explain in the context of bias?

That explicit attitudes differ from implicit (automatic) ones, which can influence behavior without conscious awareness.

implicit bias

Implicit bias refers to unconscious attitudes or stereotypes that affect our thinking, actions, and decisions without our awareness

How does implicit bias differ from explicit bias

Implicit bias operates outside of conscious awareness, whereas explicit bias involves deliberate and conscious attitudes or beliefs.

Racism

is when people are treated unfairly or viewed as less because of their race or ethnicity and can lead to harmful stereotypes, discrimination, and unequal treatment

Doll experiment

where children are asked to nominate the attractiveness and morality of different coloured dolls

sexism

discrimination involve unequal treatment and attitudes toward individuals based on their gender

Ageism

Discrimination based on age

implicit bias training

a program designed to raise awareness of unconscious biases and stereotypes that influence judgments and behaviours, ultimately aiming to reduce discrimination and promote equitable practices.

Executive Function

Higher-level thinking skills like planning, decision-making, inhibition, and flexibility.

Working Memory

Short-term storage and processing system for active thinking.Short-term active storage and manipulation of information (~7±2 items).

Psychology

is the scientific investigation of

mental processes (thinking, remembering

and feeling) and behaviour. Understanding

a person requires attention to the individ-

ual's biology, psychological experience and

cultural context.

Biopsychology

examines the physical basis of psychological phenomena such as motivation, emotion and stress

PET (Positron Emission Tomography)

a visual display of brain activity that detects where a radioactive form of glucose goes while the brain performs a given task

fMRI (Functional MRI)

Detects blood-oxygen changes reflecting neural activity

EEG (Electroencephalography)

the recording of brain activity by the detection of electrical activity in specific areas on the surface of the cortex by several surface electrodes placed on a person's scalp. Brain activity is recorded as waves, which are identified on the basis of the speed of the rhythmic activity.

Primary Auditory Cortex

emporal lobe; sound frequency & intensity analysis.

Primary Visual Cortex

Occipital lobe; initial visual processing.

Primary Somatosensory Cortex

Parietal lobe strip; body map for touch and proprioception.

Primary Motor Cortex

Frontal lobe strip; voluntary movement.

Prefrontal Cortex

Executive functions: reasoning, impulse control, working memory.

Corpus Callosum

Large fibre bundle connecting left & right hemispheres for inter-hemispheric communication.

Cerebellum

Balance, posture, motor coordination, procedural learning (skills, timing).

Midbrain(Tectum & Tegmentum)

Reflexive eye and head movements, dopamine pathways

Pons

Sleep, arousal, facial expressions, bridge between cortex and cerebellum.

Medulla Oblongata

Vital autonomic control (breathing, heart rate, blood pressure).

Basal Ganglia

Movement initiation, habit learning, procedural memory.

Hippocampus

Consolidation of new long-term memories, spatial navigation.

Amygdala

Emotional processing, especially fear and aggression, attaching emotion to memories

Hypothalamus

White-matter tract linking Broca's and Wernicke's areas; enables repetition and fluent conversation.

Wernicke's Area

Posterior temporal; language comprehension; damage = fluent but meaningless speech.

Broca's Area

Frontal left hemisphere; speech production, grammar; damage = non-fluent (Broca's) aphasia.

Occipital Lobe

Primary visual cortex; processes colour, motion, form.

Temporal Lobe

Hearing, language comprehension (Wernicke's area), memory encoding, facial/object recognition.

Parietal Lobe

Somatosensory processing (touch, pressure, temperature, pain), spatial awareness, integrating sensory input.

Frontal Lobe

Planning, decision making, voluntary motor control, speech production (Broca's area), personality, emotional regulation.

Adaptation

Behavioural or biological trait shaped by selection pressures to solve recurrent survival/reproduction problems.

Schema

Cognitive structure organising knowledge, guiding perception and memory.

Information Processing

Cognitive view that the mind encodes, stores, and retrieves data much like a computer.

Person-Centred Therapy

Carl Rogers' approach: empathy, unconditional positive regard, genuineness.

Self-Concept vs Ideal Self

Humanistic distinction between how you see yourself and who you aspire to be.

Punishment

Any consequence that weakens or reduces likelihood of behaviour.

Reinforcement

Any consequence that strengthens behaviour (positive = add pleasant; negative = remove aversive).

Conditioning

Learned associations between stimuli and responses (classical) or between behaviour and its consequences (operant).

Defence Mechanisms

Unconscious strategies (e.g., denial, repression) posited by psychodynamic theory to manage conflict.

Empirical Approach

Reliance on systematic observation, data collection, and verification.

Experimental Method

Manipulating independent variables, controlling conditions, and measuring outcomes to infer causality.

Case Study Method

Intensive, qualitative observation of a small number of individuals.

Introspection

Systematic self-report of conscious experience, used by Wundt & Titchener.

Conscious vs Unconscious Processes

Extent to which people are aware of mental contents and behavioural causes.

Continuity vs Discontinuity (with other animals)

Are human psychological processes qualitatively different or just more complex?

Rationalism vs Empiricism

Whether knowledge is gained primarily by reasoning or by sensory experience.

Nature vs Nurture

Debate over the roles of biology and environment in shaping behaviour.

Psychodynamic Perspective

Behaviour reflects unconscious motives and conflicts; key figure: Sigmund Freud

Behaviourist Perspective

Behaviour is learned and controlled by environmental stimuli, reinforcement, and punishment; key figures: Ivan Pavlov, John Watson, B. F. Skinner

Humanistic Perspective

Emphasises free will, personal growth, and self-actualisation; key figures: Carl Rogers, Abraham Maslow

Cognitive Perspective

Studies how people perceive, process, and store information, often likened to computer-style information processing

Evolutionary Perspective

Explains behaviour through adaptation and natural selection, highlighting traits that aid survival and reproduction

Self-Actualisation

Reaching one's full potential; central to humanistic theory

Empiricism

Knowledge arises from observation and experience; cornerstone of the scientific method

Paradigm

A shared theoretical framework, methods, and assumptions guiding a scientific community

What did Pavlov's dogs demonstrate?

Classical conditioning - a neutral stimulus (bell) can elicit a reflex (salivation) after repeated pairing with food.