Biological Psychology and Neural Bases of Behavior

Vocabulary practice flashcards covering biological psychology, neural transmission, nervous and endocrine systems, neuroimaging techniques, brain structures, and cerebral cortex functions.

Biological Psychology

The branch of psychology that examines the linkage between biological processes (genetic, neural, hormonal) and psychological events.

Neuron

The fundamental building block of the nervous system.

Dendrites

Bushy, branching extensions that receive incoming chemical signals from neighboring neurons and conduct impulses toward the cell body.

Soma (Cell Body)

The neuron's life-support center containing the nucleus, cytoplasm, and organelles necessary for cellular metabolic maintenance.

Axon

The elongated neuron extension that conducts electrical impulses away from the cell body toward terminal branches.

Myelin Sheath

A fatty layer of tissue segmentally encasing the axons of many neurons that enables faster transmission speeds via saltatory conduction; degeneration results in Multiple Sclerosis (MS).

Terminal Buttons (Axon Terminals)

Knob-like structures at the end of axon branches containing synaptic vesicles filled with neurotransmitters.

Glial Cells (Glia)

Support cells in the nervous system that nourish, protect, and insulate neurons, form myelin, and clear metabolic waste and excess neurotransmitters.

Resting Potential

The state of a non-active neuron maintaining a negative interior electrical charge of $-70\text{ mV}$ relative to outside fluid.

Threshold

The level of stimulation required to trigger a neural impulse, typically around $-55\text{ mV}$.

Depolarization

The electrical phase where voltage-gated sodium channels open, allowing $\text{Na}^+$ ions to flood into the axon interior and shift membrane potential to $+40\text{ mV}$.

All-or-None Response

A neuron's binary reaction to fire completely or not at all, where increased stimulus strength increases firing frequency rather than intensity or speed.

Refractory Period

A resting pause after firing during which sodium-potassium pumps restore the initial ion distribution by pumping $\text{Na}^+$ out and $\text{K}^+$ in.

Synapse (Synaptic Cleft)

The microscopic gap separating the sending neuron's axon terminals from the receiving neuron's receptor sites.

Reuptake

The process by which excess neurotransmitter molecules in the synaptic cleft are reabsorbed by the sending neuron.

Acetylcholine (ACh)

Neurotransmitter that enables muscle contraction, learning, and memory retrieval; ACh-producing neurons deteriorate in Alzheimer's disease.

Dopamine

Neurotransmitter influencing voluntary movement, learning, attention, emotion, and reward processing; oversupply is linked to schizophrenia and undersupply to Parkinson's disease.

Serotonin

Neurotransmitter affecting mood, hunger, sleep patterns, and arousal levels; undersupply is strongly linked to clinical depression.

Norepinephrine

Neurotransmitter that helps control alertness, vigilance, and physical arousal in stress responses; undersupply can depress mood.

GABA (gamma-aminobutyric acid)

Major inhibitory neurotransmitter that calms central nervous system activity; undersupply is linked to seizures, tremors, and severe anxiety disorders.

Glutamate

Major excitatory neurotransmitter involved in memory consolidation and synaptic plasticity; oversupply can cause migraines or seizures.

Endorphins

Endogenous opioids that diminish the perception of pain and boost feelings of pleasure.

Agonist

A molecule that increases a neurotransmitter's action by mimicking its structure or blocking its reuptake.

Antagonist

A molecule that decreases or blocks a neurotransmitter's action by occupying receptor sites without activating them.

Central Nervous System (CNS)

The division of the nervous system composed of the brain and spinal cord that acts as the primary decision-maker and information processing center.

Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

The sensory and motor neurons connecting the central nervous system to the rest of the body.

Somatic Nervous System (SNS)

Subdivision of the PNS that controls voluntary movements of skeletal muscles and transmits sensory input to the CNS.

Autonomic Nervous System (ANS)

Subdivision of the PNS that controls involuntary, dual self-regulating operations of internal glands and organs.

Sympathetic Nervous System

Division of the ANS that arouses and mobilizes energy in response to perceived stress or danger ('Fight or Flight').

Parasympathetic Nervous System

Division of the ANS that calms the body and conserves physical resources once threats diminish ('Rest and Digest').

Sensory (Afferent) Neurons

Neurons that carry incoming sensory information from body tissues and sensory receptors inward to the CNS.

Motor (Efferent) Neurons

Neurons that carry outgoing instructions and commands from the CNS outward to muscles, organs, and glands.

Interneurons

Neurons located entirely within the CNS that process information internally between sensory inputs and motor outputs.

Pituitary Gland

The 'master gland' located at the base of the brain under hypothalamic control that releases growth hormone, oxytocin, and trophic hormones.

Adrenal Glands

Glands located above the kidneys that secrete epinephrine and norepinephrine during fight-or-flight stress responses.

Thyroid Gland

Gland in the neck that secretes thyroxine to regulate metabolic rate and energy levels.

Pancreas

Organ that regulates blood glucose levels by releasing insulin and glucagon.

Gonads

Testes in males and ovaries in females that secrete sex hormones governing sexual development and reproductive functions.

Electroencephalogram (EEG)

A tool that uses scalp electrodes to record sweeping electrical activity waves, measuring brain wave patterns, sleep stages, and seizures.

Magnetoencephalography (MEG)

A neuroimaging tool measuring magnetic fields produced by natural electrical currents to pinpoint exact timing and speed of neural processing.

Computed Tomography (CT/CAT)

Technique using X-ray photographs combined by computer to create 3D structural cross-sections showing brain damage, tumors, or internal bleeding.

Positron Emission Tomography (PET)

An imaging scan tracking radioactive glucose consumption to reveal functional activity ('hot spots') during tasks.

Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)

Technique using magnetic fields and radio waves to produce high-resolution structural images of soft-tissue anatomy.

Functional MRI (fMRI)

Imaging method that compares successive MRI scans to detect changes in oxygenated blood flow, measuring structure and dynamic function in real time.

Brainstem

The oldest and innermost brain region, beginning where the spinal cord swells entering the skull, managing basic subconscious life-support.

Medulla

The base of the brainstem that controls vital involuntary survival functions such as heart rate, breathing, and blood pressure.

Pons

Structure located above the medulla that coordinates movement, sleep regulation, facial expressions, and bladder control.

Reticular Formation

Nerve network extending through the brainstem into the thalamus that plays a key role in physical arousal, alertness, and filtering sensory stimuli.

Thalamus

The brain's sensory control center located on top of the brainstem that routes incoming sensory messages (except smell) to cortical regions.

Cerebellum

Rear brainstem structure ('Little Brain') coordinating voluntary fine motor movement, balance, posture, nonverbal learning, and implicit procedural memory.

Limbic System

Neural system located at the border of older brainstem structures and cerebral hemispheres that governs drives, emotions, and memory.

Amygdala

Two almond-shaped neural clusters linked to emotional processing, particularly fear, aggression, and threat detection.

Hypothalamus

Structure below the thalamus that directs maintenance activities, helps govern the endocrine system via the pituitary, and houses reward centers.

Hippocampus

Neural structure wrapped around the thalamus critical for processing explicit, conscious memories of facts and events for long-term storage.

Cerebral Cortex

Intricate fabric of interconnected neural cells covering the cerebral hemispheres that functions as the ultimate control and information-processing center.

Frontal Lobes

Cortical lobes located behind the forehead involved in speaking, muscle movements, higher-level executive functions, and personality expressiveness.

Parietal Lobes

Cortical lobes located at the top rear of the head that process sensory input for touch, body position, spatial awareness, and pressure.

Occipital Lobes

Cortical lobes located at the back of the head containing the visual cortex to receive and integrate visual information.

Temporal Lobes

Cortical lobes located above the ears containing the primary auditory cortex and structures critical for language comprehension and facial recognition.

Motor Cortex

Arch-shaped area at the rear of the frontal lobes that controls voluntary movements contralaterally.

Somatosensory Cortex

Area at the front of the parietal lobes that registers and processes body touch and movement sensations.

Association Areas

Vast regions of the cerebral cortex ($75\%$) not dedicated to primary motor or sensory functions that integrate information for higher-order mental functions.

Broca's Area

Region in the left frontal lobe controlling motor speech production; damage causes expressive aphasia.

Wernicke's Area

Region in the left temporal lobe responsible for language comprehension and meaningful expression; damage causes receptive aphasia.

Neuroplasticity

The brain's capacity to modify its neural pathways, reassign function, and adapt to damage or new experience.

Neurogenesis

The birth and formation of brand-new neurons within adult brain tissue, primarily observed in the hippocampus.