AP Government Midterm Review

John Locke, Second Treatise of Government

He wrote that all human beings have a right to life, liberty, and property and that governments exist to protect those rights. He rejected the theory of the Divine Right of the monarchy, and believed that government was based upon a "social contract" that existed between a government and its people. If the government failed to uphold its end of the contract by protecting those rights, the people could rebel and institute a new government.

Montesquieu, The Spirit of Laws

He believed that the government's power should be divided into separate branches, that the government should be close to the people, and that laws should reflect the will of the people.

Natural Rights

the idea that all humans are born with rights, which include the right to life, liberty, and property

Popular Sovereignty

A belief that ultimate power resides in the people.

Republicanism

A philosophy of limited government with elected representatives serving at the will of the people. The government is based on consent of the governed.

Social Contract

A voluntary agreement among individuals to secure their rights and welfare by creating a government and abiding by its rules.

participatory democracy

a system of democracy in which all members of a group or community participate collectively in making major decisions

Pluralist Democracy (Pluralism)

An interpretation of democracy in which government by the people is taken to mean government by people operation through competing interest groups. Voters have a high level of ignorance.

Elite Democracy (Elitism)

Political system in which power is concentrated in the hands of a relatively small group of individuals or institutions.

Declaration of Independence

1776 statement, issued by the Second Continental Congress, explaining why the colonies wanted independence from Britain.

Constitutional Convention

Meeting in 1787 of the elected representatives of the thirteen original states to write the Constitution of the United States.

U.S. Constitution

The document written in 1787 and ratified in 1788 that sets forth the institutional structure of the U.S. government and the tasks these institutions perform. It replaced the Articles of Confederation.

Federalist 10

An essay composed by James Madison which argues that liberty is safest in a large republic because many interests (factions) exist. Such diversity makes tyranny by the majority more difficult since ruling coalitions will always be unstable.

Brutus No. 1

This work by a prominent Anti-Federalist argued that that the new federal government would be too powerful. In particular, he pointed to the necessary-and-proper clause and the supremacy clause. In addition, he objected to Congress's power to tax and raise a standing army and to the vast size of the proposed republic. He felt this powerful new government would supplant the states.

Articles of Confederation

1st Constitution of the U.S. 1781-1788 (weaknesses-no executive, no judicial, no power to tax, no power to regulate trade)

Anti-Federalists

people who opposed the Constitution

Federalists

supporters of the Constitution

faction

A group or clique within a larger group, party, or government

Shay's Rebellion (1786)

Armed uprising of western Massachusetts debtors seeking lower taxes and an end to property foreclosures. Though quickly put down, the insurrection inspired fears of "mob rule" among leading Revolutionaries.

Great Compromise (Connecticut Compromise)

1787

*Called for a bicameral legislative system in which the House of Representatives would be based on population and the Senate would have equal representation in Congress

*Combined pieces of the New Jersey Plan, the Virginia Plan, and other proposals

Electoral College Compromise

Decision to not allow people to directly vote for the president, through using electors

Three-Fifths Compromise

Agreement that each slave counted as three-fifths of a person in determining representation in the House for representation and taxation purposes (negated by the 13th amendment)

Slave Trade Compromise

Congress could not regulate or outlaw slavery or slave trade until 1808

Amendment Process

step 1: amendment proposed by 2/3 vote of both houses of congress OR a constitutional convention called by congress on petition of 2/3 out of 50 states. THEN amendment ratified by 3/4 of the 50 state legislatures OR 3/4 of special constitutional conventions called by 50 states THEN the new amendment!

Impeachment

An action by the House of Representatives to accuse the president, vice president, or other civil officers of the United States of committing "Treason, Bribery, or other high Crimes and Misdemeanors."

Separation of Powers

Constitutional division of powers among the legislative, executive, and judicial branches, with the legislative branch making law, the executive applying and enforcing the law, and the judiciary interpreting the law

Checks and Balances

A system that allows each branch of government to limit the powers of the other branches in order to prevent abuse of power

Federalist 51 (Madison)

Madison's explanation of the Constitution's system of Separation of powers, checks and balances

Federalism (federal system)

sharing of power between national and state government

enumerated powers

Powers specifically given to Congress in the Constitution; including the power to collect taxes, coin money, regulate foreign and interstate commerce, and declare war.

concurrent powers

powers shared by the national and state governments

categorical grants

Federal grants that can be used only for specific purposes, or "categories," of state and local spending. They come with strings attached, such as nondiscrimination provisions.

block grants

federal grants-in-aid that allow states considerable discretion in how the funds are spent

grants-in-aid

programs through which Congress provides money to state and local governments on the condition that the funds be employed for purposes defined by the federal government

Revenue Sharing Grants

Federal grants distributing a portion of federal tax revenues to state and local governments

unfunded mandates

Programs that the Federal government requires States to implement without Federal funding.

National Minimum Drinking Age Act of 1984

Act passed in 1984 by the U.S. Congress to punish every state that allowed persons below 21 years to purchase and publicly possess alcoholic beverages by reducing its annual federal highway apportionment by 10%. Led to an outright ban of alcohol for those under 21 in several states.

Tenth Amendment

The powers not delegated to the United States by the Constitution, nor prohibited by it to the States, are reserved to the States respectively, or to the people.

Fourteenth Amendment

the constitutional amendment adopted after the Civil War that states, "no state shall make or enforce any law which shall abridge the privileges or immunities of citizens of the United States; nor shall any state deprive any person of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law; nor deny to any person within its jurisdiction the equal protection of the laws."

Commerce Clause

The clause in the Constitution (Article I, Section 8, Clause 1) that gives Congress the power to regulate all business activities that cross state lines or affect more than one state or other nations.

Necessary and Proper Clause (Elastic Clause)

A clause in Article I, section 8, of the Constitution that gives Congress the power to do whatever it deems necessary and constitutional to meet its enumerated obligations; the basis for the implied powers.

implied powers

Powers inferred from the express powers that allow Congress to carry out its functions.

McCulloch v. Maryland (1819)

the Supreme Court upheld the power of the national government and denied the right of a state to tax the federal bank using the Constitution's supremacy clause. The Court's broad interpretation of the necessary and proper clause paved the way for later rulings upholding expansive federal powers

United States v. Lopez (1995)

The national government's power under the commerce clause does not permit it to regulate matters not directly related to interstate commerce (in this case, banning firearms in a school zone)

Defense of Marriage Act (DOMA)

passed Congress in 1996; defined marriage as between only a man and women; however many states and companies extended benefits to same sex partners and many states legalized same sex marriages

No Child Left Behind Act

an act that requires states to test students in prescribed grades, with the results of those tests determining eligibility to receive federal funding

United States v. Morrison (2000)

The Violence Against Women Act of Congress is unconstitutional as it exceeds the authority given by the Constitution for Congress to exercise the Interstate Commerce Clause or the Fourteenth Amendment.

political culture

commonly shared attitudes, beliefs, and core values about how government should operate

Individualism

a social theory favoring freedom of action for individuals over collective or state control.

equality of opportunity

a widely shared American ideal that all people should have the freedom to use whatever talents and wealth they have to reach their fullest potential

free enterprise

a type of economy in which people are free to buy, sell, and produce whatever they want

Rule of Law

principle that the law applies to everyone, even those who govern

Limited Government

A principle of constitutional government; a government whose powers are defined and limited by a constitution.

political socialization

the process by which people gain their political attitudes and opinions

public opinion

what the public thinks about a particular issue or set of issues at any point in time

public opinion polls

interviews or surveys with samples of citizens that are used to estimate the feelings and beliefs of the entire population

tracking polls

continuous surveys that enable a campaign or news organization to chart a candidate's daily rise or fall in support

exit poll

a poll of people leaving a polling place, asking how they voted.

Sampling

The process of selecting representative units from a total population

sampling error

The level of confidence in the findings of a public opinion poll. The more people interviewed, the more confident one can be of the results.

Reliability

the extent to which a test yields consistent results

liberal

open to new behavior or opinions and willing to discard traditional values.

conservative

holding to traditional attitudes and values and cautious about change or innovation, typically in relation to politics or religion.

Democratic Party

A political party formed by supporters of Andrew Jackson after the presidential election of 1824.

Republican Party

Antislavery political party that formed in the 1850's.

Libertarianism

An ideology that cherishes individual liberty and insists on minimal government, promoting a free market economy, a noninterventionist foreign policy, and an absence of regulation in moral, economic, and social life.

Fifteenth Amendment (1870)

1870 constitutional amendment that guaranteed voting rights regardless of race or previous condition of servitude

Seventeenth Amendment (1913)

1913 constitutional amendment allowing American voters to directly elect US senators

Twenty-fourth Amendment (1964)

outlawed poll taxes, which had been used to prevent the poor from voting

Twenty-sixth Amendment (1971)

Lowered the voting age from 21 to 18

Rational Choice Theory

A popular theory in political science to explain the actions of voters as well as politicians. It assumes that individuals act in their own best interest, carefully weighing the costs and benefits of possible alternatives.

retrospective voting

A theory of voting in which voters essentially ask this simple question: "What have you done for me lately?"

prospective voting

basing voting decisions on well-informed opinions and consideration of the future consequences of a given vote

party-line voting

process in which voters select candidates by their party affiliation

voter registration laws

a system adopted by the states that requires voters to register well in advanced of Election Day. A few states permit Election Day registration.

midterm election

The congressional election that occurs midway through the president's term of office

voter turnout

the percentage of eligible voters who cast a ballot in an election

linkage institutions

The channels through which people's concerns become political issues on the government's policy agenda. In the United States, linkage institutions include elections, political parties, interest groups, and the media.

political party

A group of individuals with broad common interests who organize to nominate candidates for office, win elections, conduct government, and determine public policy

Critical election/party realignment

An election when significant groups of voters change their traditional patterns of party loyalty; the majority party is displaced by the minority party, thus ushering in a new party era for decades

National Convention

The meeting of party delegates every four years to choose a presidential ticket and write the party's platform.

winner-take-all system

an electoral system in which the party that receives at least one more vote than any other party wins the election

Third parties/Minor parties

electoral contenders other than the two major parties. American third parties are not unusual, but they rarely win elections.

interest group

An organization of people sharing a common interest or goal that seeks to influence the making of public policy

Lobbying

Engaging in activities aimed at influencing public officials, especially legislators, and the policies they enact.

grassroots mobilization

a lobbying campaign in which a group mobilizes its membership to contact government officials in support of the group's position

free rider problem

the problem faced by interest groups when citizens can reap the benefits of interest group action without actually joining, participating in, or contributing money to such groups.

single-issue groups

groups that have a narrow interest on which their members tend to take an uncompromising stance

ideological party

a political party based on a particular set of beliefs or ideology.

incumbent

An officeholder who is seeking reelection.

primary election

Nominating election held to choose party candidates who will run in the general election

incumbency advantage

The electoral advantage a candidate enjoys by virtue of being an incumbent, over and above his or her other personal and political characteristics

open primary

A primary election in which voters may choose in which party to vote as they enter the polling place

closed primary

A primary in which only registered members of a particular political party can vote

general election

An election held to choose which candidate will hold office

Electoral College System

The system responsible for electing the president. The number of delegates in each state is the sum of their representatives and senators. This system was instituted because the Framers feared that direct election of the president would lead to mob rule.

Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act of 2002

banned soft money contributions to national political parties from corporations and unions; independent expenditures by corporations, labor unions, trade associations, and nonprofit organizations are sharply restricted

Political Action Committee (PAC)

A committee set up by a corporation, labor union, or interest group that raises and spends campaign money from voluntary donations

soft money

Campaign contributions unregulated by federal or state law, usually given to parties and party committees to help fund general party activities.

independent expenditures

Money spent by individuals or groups not associated with candidates to elect or defeat candidates for office.