realm of things large enough to be observed by the human senses
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microscopic
realm we cannot see directly
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scientific method
identify a problem
create a hypothesis
experiment to test the hypothesis
collect and analyze data
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pure research
conducted to gain knowledge for the sake of knowledge itself
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applied research
solve specific problems
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technology
application of scientific problems
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kilo
1000
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hecto
100
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deca
10
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base
1
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deci
-10
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centi
-100
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milli
-1000
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King Henry Died By Drinking Chocolate Milk
\- to convert to a larger unit, move decimal left or divide
\- to convert to a smaller unit, move decimal right or multiply
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scientific notation to decimal notation
\- positive exponent, move decimal right to create a bigger number
\- negative exponent, move decimal left to create a smaller number
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decimal notation to scientific notation
move decimal so the coefficient is between 1 and 10.
\- if the number was
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accuracy
how close the measured value is to the actual value
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precision
how close the measurements are to each other
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percent error
| experimemental-accepted | /accepted x 100
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non zeros
always counted
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leading zeros
never counted
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captive zeros
always counted
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trailing zeros
only counted when comes after a decimal
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scientific notation
only coefficient is counted
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multiplying/dividing
answer has the least number of sig figs in the original data
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adding/subtracting
answer has the least decimal places as the original data (numbers in front of the decimal can stay)
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nucleus
\- accounts for atom's mass
\- composed of nucleons (protons and neutrons)
\- dense center
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electron cloud/energy level/shell
\- outside of the nucleus where the electrons are located
\- accounts for atom's volume
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atomic number (Z)
protons and electrons
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ion
when an atom loses or gains electrons
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anion
\- negative ion
\- when an atom gains electrons
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cation
\- positive ion
\- when an atom loses electrons
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mass number (A)
protons+neutrons
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neutrons
mass-atomic number
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isotopes
same number of protons, different number of neutrons, therefore different mass
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average atomic mass
sum of (mass x abundance)
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strong nuclear force
\- holds the nucleus together
\- short range force of attraction
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electrical forces
\- between the positively charged protons
\- long range force of repulsion
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chemical reactions
involved the valence electrons; the identity of the elements is unchanged; obeys the law of conservation of mass
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nuclear reactions
involved the atom's nucleus; elements involved may change into new elements in a process called transmutation; mass may be converted into energy and unstable nuclei lose energy in a process called radioactive decay
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unstable nucleus
\- electrical force overpowers the strong nuclear force
\- wrong neutron:proton ratio (higher the ratio, the more radioactive- atomic #>82
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alpha particle
use paper to block (weakest)
\- mass: decreases 4
\- atomic #: decreases 2
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beta particle
use tin foil to block
\- mass: unchanged
\- atomic #: increases 1
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gamma decay
use thick lead and concrete to block (strongest)
\- mass: unchanged
\- atomic #: unchanged
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nuclear fission
breaking of a large nucleus into smaller pieces
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nuclear fusion
a small nuclei fusing into a bigger nuclei
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coulomb's law
F= # of protons/distance
\- the more protons, the more force, resulting in a smaller atom
\- the greater the distance, the less force, resulting in a larger atom
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wavelength
distance between two repeating points on a wave
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frequency
number of waves that pass a given point in a second. measured in seconds/hertz/s-1
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speed of light
c=λv
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radio
\- low frequency
\- high wavelength
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gamma
\- high frequency
\- low wavelength
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plank's equation
E=hv
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s shell
\- 1 orbital
\- 2 electrons
\- sphere shape
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p shell
\- 3 orbitals
\- 6 electrons
\- dumbbell shape
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d shell
\- 5 orbitals
\- 10 electrons
\- clover shape
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f shell
\- 7 orbitals
\- 14 electrons
\- complicated shape
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pauli's exclusion principal
electrons in an orbital must have different spins (+1/2 or -1/2)
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quantum numbers
n- group #
l- special code (s=0; p=1; d=2; f=3)
m- orbital place (0 in the middle, dependent on special code)
s- spin # (+1/2 or -1/2)
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aufbau rule
lowest energy orbitals are filled first
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hund's rule
all orbitals must have an electron before pairing
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metals
left side of stair case except for hydrogen. shiny, malleable, good conductors
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non-metals
right side of staircase. dull, brittle, poor conductors
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metaloids/semi-metals
elements that touch the staircase except for aluminium. conductors or insulators depending on the environment
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atomic radius
\- decreases across period
\- increases down group
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ionic radius
\- decreases across period
\- increases down group
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ionization energy
\- increases across period
\- decreases down group
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electronegativity
\- increases across period
\- decreases down group(highest at fluorine, lowest at francium)
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metal reactivity
increases from right to left
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non-metals reactivity
increases from left to right
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octet rule
atoms transfer or share electrons in order to acquire a full outer electron shell just like noble gases
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properties of ionic compounds
crystalline solid structure at room temperature, high melting and boiling points, soluble in water, does not conduct electricity as solid but has electrolytes
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delocalized electrons
electrons that do not belong to one nucleus or atom. they are shared and can freely move. properties: good conductors, luster, malleable, ductile, crystal solids
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alloy
solution of two or more metals (intersticial and substitutional)
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intersticial
space between larger metal atoms are filled with smaller atoms
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substitutional
atoms in original metallic solid are substituted/replaced with other metals of similar atomic size
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bond order
number of bonds between two atoms
\- shorter the bond length, stronger the bond
\- higher the bond order, stronger the bond
\- bonds broken: energy absorbed
\- bonds formed: energy released
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endothermic reactions
energy required to break bonds is greater than energy released. energy is absorbed
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exothermic reactions
more energy is released when forming than required to break. energy is released
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properties of covalent compounds
weak forces of attraction, low melting and boiling points, volatile liquids (evaporates easily), does not conduct electricity
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lewis structures
\- central atom is the least electronegative (never fluorine or hydrogen; always carbon when present)
\- find available electrons: count valence electrons
\- find required electrons: give octets and 2 for hydrogen
\- find shared electrons: subtract available from required
\- find bonds: divide the shared electrons by 2
\- check: electrons = electrons available
\- polyatomic ions: place inside brackets with net charge
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max number of bonds (HONC)
1- hydrogen/halogens
2- oxygen
3- nitrogen
4- carbon
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polar
electrons are being shared unequally, creating a pull of negative and positive ends. the negative end is the atom that is more electronegative (H2O is polar)
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non polar
electrons are shared equally, thus no positive or negative ends (CH is always non polar)
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covalent bonds difference in electronegativity
\- greater than 0.4 -> polar
\- less than or equal to 0.4 -> non polar
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VSPER theorgy
three dimensional shapes created by electrons repelling each other
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finding charge clouds
each bond is always counted as 1 cloud. any lone pairs are counted as 1 cloud. maximum is 4
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2 charge clouds
\- geometry of electrons: linear
\- molecular geometry: linear
\- 180
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3 charge clouds
\- geometry of electrons: trigonal planar
\- molecular geometry: trigonal planar or bent/angular
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