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what was Farr and Gibbons’ categories of criminal behaviors
property predatory crime
property fraudulent crime
interpersonal violence general
interpersonal violence sexual
transactional vice
order disruption
folk/mundane crime
property predatory crime
someone may attempt inprope taking someone’s personal property
e.g. robbery or car theft
property fraudulent crime
someone may lie of manipulate to get other’s money or possessions for themselves
e.g. fraud and embezzlement
interpersonal violence general
someone may cause personal harm to someone else
e.g. murder + assault
interpersonal violence sexual
someone may threaten to cause harm that contains a sexual nature
e.g. rape, incest
transactional vice
victimless crime where there is a willing exchange of good or services
e.g. prosecution + drug sales
Order Disruption
there is no direct victim but concerns are raised on potential victims
e.g. resisting arrest + loittering
folk / mudane crime
range from minor to major crimes that the public doesnt take seriously
e.g. fishing without licence
The Stress Diathesis Model
a theoretical that explains how genetic and environmental factors interact to influence the development of criminal behaviour.
individuals with genetic predisposition to criminal behaviorG may only exhibit due to certain environmental stressors
genetic predisposition
increased likelihood of developing a particular trait or behaviors due to inherited genetic factors
environmental stressors
external factors can trigger a particular behaviour of trait in an individual with a genetic predisposition
MAOA gene
gene codes for an enzyme that breaks down neurotransmitters ( seretonin)
variation in this gene is linked to increased aggression and violent behaviour
especially in males who have experienced chilhood trauma
DRD2 gene
gene codes for a dopamine receptor involved in reward seeking behaviors
variation in this gene is linked to impulsivity and addictive behavior
Research Evidence
Beaver et al has high validity
large sample size - result of high MAOA gene linked to violent delinquency isn’t by chance
increase validity
Research Limitations
cant show cause and effect due to it being a correlational study
used court documents as evidence - used self reports
reports could be exaggerated → reduce validity
Cultural Limitations
culture influences crime
St. Thomas + Tortola - geographically close but different culturally
3x murder rates in St Thomas
Tortola have traditional ideas - elder role models
Gender Bias
arent reliale explanation for women
Jordan et al → 805 women felons interviewed, assessing 8 disorder
WEAKNESS - higher rates of substance abuse and antisocial and borderline personality disorder
Intervention
identifying and targeting those at higher risk
gene modification can reduce environmental risk factors that can trigger gene
STRENGTH → create utopion society, increase QoL, reduce discrimination against certain genetic makeups
Inherited criminality: Genetic Factors
proposes that one or more genes predispose individuals to criminal behaviors
twin studies → comparison between MZ + DZ (identical and fraternal twins) show higher concordance rates for criminality in MZ twins, indicating a genetic influence.
Adrian Raine
research on the delinquent behavior of twins
52% concordance for MZ twin
21% concordance for DZ twin
Inherited Criminality: searching for candidate genes
two genes have been especially linked to criminals behaviors - MAOA + DRD2
Bunner et al
analyzed the DNA of 28 male members of a Dutch family who had histories of impulsive + violent criminal behaviors
found that men shared a particular gene that led to abnormally low level of MAOA
what are the genes associated with criminality
MAOA - breaks down neurotransmitter, serotonin (variation in this gene is linked to aggression)
DRD2 - codes for dopamine receptor which is linked to impulsivity + addictive behaviors
inherited criminality : diathesis - model
modern understanding of genetic influence no longer proposes that one or few genes on their own will determine behavior
Epigenetics suggests genes are switched on or off by epigenomes, which are influenced by environmental factors.
one particular possibility is maltreatment in childhood
Capsi et al
used data from in the longitudinal study that followed about 1,000 people from when they were babies in the 70s
assessed antisocial behavior at 26 and found 12% had low MAOA gene had experienced maltreatment
inherited criminality: differences in the brain
criminal genes may cause differences in areas of brain or in key neurotransmitters
Raine et al
murders has reduced functioning in the prefrontal cortex → area associated with loss of anger
researchers suggest that low levels of neurotransmitter serotonin may predispose individuals to impulsive aggression
inherited criminality: inherited personality
according to Eyesenc’s theory of criminal personality - he proposed that some people inherit types of behaviors that predispose them to behave in
Research supporting Inherited Criminality
Adoption studies proves element of inheritance in reoffending
crowne (1972)
adopted children who had a biological parent with a criminal record has a 38% risk of getting a criminal record by 18
compared to those who don’t which is 6%
Mednick’s study of 14,000 adoptees found that 15% of sons who had been adopted by criminals went on to be criminals compared to the 20% whose biological parents were criminals
evaluating inherited criminality: explaining non violent crimes
doesn’t account for all types of crime and only relates association with violent behavior
may account for psychopathy
a person who lacks empathy for others and so more likely to commit a crime
Lynn Finday
suggest crime isn’t a natural category and doesn’t exist apart from how we choose to define it
makes it difficult to argue that criminality is due genetics and interaction with environment when society created a category of criminal behavior
Evaluating Inherited criminality: cultural limitations
genetics aren’t always the cause of crime in some instances it can be as a result of cultural influences
St Thomas and Tortola are close geographically but very different culturally
st Thomas have a very Americanized gang culture
there’s is a 3x higher murder rate in st Thomas
evaluating Inherited criminality : Gender Limitation
genetics aren’t a reliable biological explanation of crime for women
Jordan et al
805 women felons were interviewed and assessed for 8 disorders
found higher rates if substance abuse, dependence and antisocial and borderline personality disorder compared to women in general pop
found to have high incidences of lifetime exposure to traumatic events
what can be used as an intervention for inherited criminality
gene modification on targeted genes
role of amygdala: structure + functioning of amygdala
a collection of neuron cell bodies clustered together in the medial temporal lobe
there is one for each hemisphere
neurally linked to hypothalamus, hippocampus and prefrontal cortex
has widespread influence on brain functioning and ultimately on behaviors associated with emotions
plays a major role in how we respond to environmental threats
role of amygdala: amygdala and aggression
Emil Coccaro et al - investigated the effects of amygdala on aggression by studying people with IED
IED is a common symptom which is outbursts of reactive aggression
each participant viewed images of faces while having a fMRI scan
Participants with IED showed high levels of amygdala activity
study has high realism as angry faces are everyday signs of threat
role of amygdala: amygdala and fear conditioning
Gao et al
-point out that as children we learn to inhibit our aggressive and antisocial behaviour through fear conditioning
learn that aggression leads to punishment
amygdala is involed in processing fear info + conditioning
dsyfunction in amygdala means child cant identify social cues that indicate threat and so cant link punishment to aggression
role of amygdala: research supports
Raine replicated his study in 2013 with advanced brain imaging techniques (fMRI) to provide more precise evidence
this replication of the 1995 study enhances reliability of raine’s finding.
consistency on results over time show robustness of conclusions that amygdala is linked
advanced imaging techniques also minimize errors and improves validity of study by addressing criticisms of first study
evaluating role of amygdala: Effects are indirect
amygdala has a role in regulating fear + anxiety related behaviors
damages to amygdala affects the ability to process fear and anxiety relates info normally → affects social functioning
this makes aggressive behavior likely but not inevitable
amygdala dysfunction isn’t direct cause but can be a risk factor
whether individual becomes criminal or not depends on other biological and environmental factors
there is a more complex explanation than just amygdala