ENTM final (everything after exam 2)

vector

an organism that transmits disease

causative agent or agent of disease

pathogen or organism that directly causes disease

American elm tree

host of Dutch Elm Disease, bark beetles being the vector, and fungus being the agent, less than 20% are left in the US due to the impact, the tree react to fungal infection by plugging its own xylem, preventing water and nutrient flow leading the tree to starve and die

other damages on trees

emerald ash borer attacks ash tree, females lay eggs on the bark leading to larvae bone into bark then larvae feed on transportation tissue (cambium) and disrupt water and nutrient flow which weakens and kills the tree

click beetles (family elateridae)

have the ability to flip through the air by their spine and notch on the thoracic segments, which is a predation avoidance strategy, and some are bioluminescent and produce light

fireflies or lightning bugs (family lampyridae)

have a bioluminescent organ on abdomen through a photocyte which is a cell that includes Luciferin + Luciferase (enzyme) + Energy + oxygen (ex: there are also non-luminescent lampyrids found in California during early summer)

function of light in adult

uses light to attract mate and identify mate (sexual communication)

function of light in larvae

light acts as a visual warning, a warning signal for distastefulness

light communication

is a general adaptation for beetles to find one another, they identity species through a unique flash pattern and discover cheaters through predatory mimic (firefly example)

pheromones

is a general adaptation for beetles to find one another, they are chemical signals between individuals within a species, there are two types: aggregation pheromones that are used by many bark beetles and sex pheromones that allow the identification of potential mates

order diptera: flies — homometabolous order

which is a large, successful, and highly diverse order, as adults they are day-fliers, but some important groups are nocturnal or crepuscular (which means active at dusk or dawn), their eggs are laid in larval habitat which is typically a moist environment, larvae stay in or around their food source (relatively sedentary)

diptera flies — morphology as adults

halteres (gyroscope) helps in stabilization during flight and some with sucking mouthparts and lots of variation

diptera flies — morphology as larvae

have no legs, sometimes spines, while “primitive” flies with well-developed head capsule (culiciform — type larvae), more derived flies have no head capsule and reduced mouthparts to hook (vermiform — type larvae called maggots), and a puparium; hardened larval skin (exoskeleton) that endorses the pupa in dipteran insects which is found in more derived groups that have “maggot-like” immatures

diptera flies — reproduction

courtship with diverse strategies, sounds through wingbeat frequency of female detected by male antennal organ, vision like male dung flies that are visually oriented, and leks where males gather in places not associated with a resource and display and defend territories

diptera flies — diversity

dipterans are successful because they have separate niches for life stages (adult and larvae), excellent adult dispersal ability (some black flies travel > 100km), adapted larvae specialize in rotting organic matters, and short generation times

crane flies (family tipulidae)

adults have mosquito-like appearance, stilt-like, log legs, and adult stilt-like legs may be easily shed as a defensive mechanism, larvae are usually aquatic, terrestrial (moist soil) and feed on organic matter, some feed on root system of grass and pupate in soil

non-biting midges (family chironomidae)

midges are small flies, common around bodies of water, larvae are aquatic

non-biting midges

don’t bite, wings are shorter than their body (abdomen), larvae develop in mud at the bottom of water, and they do not carry diseases

mosquitoes

use proboscis to bite, wings are longer than their body (abdomen), they develop in stagnant water, and they may carry diseases

biting midges (family ceratopogonidae)

known as “no-see-ums”, male and female both feed on nectar, female feed on blood or hemolymph for egg development, and have a diverse feeding habit of vertebrate blood, insect hemolymph, etc., some are significant vectors

moth flies/drain flies (family psychodidae)

common in bathrooms, larvae develop in drains and feed on organic matters, some have short, hairy bodies and wings, giving them a “furry” moth-like appearance

sand flies (subfamily phlebotominae)

have significance as a vector of a human disease as females and males feed on nectar, females feed on blood meal to produce eggs, disease: leishmaniasis, parasite (causative agent): protozoan parasites — 20 different species)

leishmaniasis

manifestations: cutaneous, mucosal, visceral, risk factors: malnutrition, poor hygiene, poverty, urbanization, and deforestation, prevention: sleep under mosquito nets treated with pesticide, and treatment: no vaccine currently available, US military: significant health risk to the ones deployed to endemic regions

horse fly and deer fly (family tabanidae)

strong fiber, large compound eyes, females and males feed on nectar, pest status: bite female only with knife-like mandible and maxillae —> incision —> lap p the blood (“slashing—sponging mouthparts), is a painful bite, is a disease vector for some mammals

deer flies

dark band across the wing, smaller than horse fly, life cycle: as larvae they are aquatic (in mud or edge of pond), as females they lay eggs on the plants in wetlands, female mouthparts are slashing—spanging (blood meal), while males feed on nectar

horse flies

clear wing

robber flies (family asilidae)

are predators, they have stylite mouthparts surrounded by a hairy beard (short, stout proboscis for stabbing), concave depression on top of head between compounds eyes, as adults they feed on small insects like flies, honeybees, beetles, etc, they are visual hunters and can catch flying insects, as larvae they develop in soil, feed on decaying organic matters, and some are predatory

house fly/stable fly (family muscidae)

house fly have sponging mouthparts and stable fly have piercing-sucking mouthparts, male and female blood meal through forward-pointing proboscis

tsetse fly (family glossinidae)

place one wing directly on top of other wing in resting position, have forward-pointing proboscis, they are extensively studied because they vector African typanogmiasis, they have an unusual life cycle (Adenotrophic viviparity) caused by protozoan parasite in genus Trypanosoma, they first fertilize one egg at a time, offspring develops within uterus, female feeds large from modified uterine gland, as 3rd install, the larva leaves uterus and crawl into ground to pupate, and emerge as adults (both male and female take blood meal)

African trypanosomiasis

sleeping sickness, is transmitted by tsetse fly, endemic in sub-Saharan Africa, and initially is in skin then blood —> central nervous system causing many symptoms including sleep cycle disturbance, impact on cattle/dairy farming: trypanosomiasis in domestic animal, and is a major obstacle for rural economic development “tsetse belt”

blow flies (family calliphoridae)

adults feed on nectar (nectivorous), occasional pollinators, larvae are scavengers of carrion, dung, and other decaying organic matters, mechanisms of action: debridement which is the removal of dead, dying tissue, disinfection which is compounds with broad-spectrum antimicrobial activity

medicinal use of maggots

maggot therapy with surgical maggots (green bottle fly), FDA consider them a medical device

use of flies in forensic entomology

we can get a good estimate of time of death by looking at the insect activity in and around the corpse, blow flies are so useful because they can locate dead animal bodies within minutes and lay eggs on it, the first documented account of forensic entomology is “washing away of wrongs” by Sung Tz’u which was about flies (most likely bottle fly)

black flies aka buffalo gnat (family simuliidae)

females consume nectar and blood while males feed on nectar, only females bite and are long-distance fliers in search of a blood meal, larvae feed on labial fan and have uptake of organic debris carried in water and produce silk pad on the substance surface by microscopic hooks on their abdomen, and as pupae they have spiracular gill for respiration, silken cocoon on the surface of aquatic plant or other substrates (like rocks)

river blindness disease

vector: black fly

causative agent: immatures of a parasitic nematode (worm) called “microfilarie”

location: skin or cornea of eye which is the transparent front parts of the eye

symptoms: skin inflammation, itchiness, skin depigmentation, and blindess

treatment: ivermectin (anti parasitic drug)

complex life cycle of the nematode (roundworms)

nematode larvae enter the bite wound upon bite by an infected fly, then they develop into adults and form nodules

mated nematodes in the subcutaneous nodules produce microfilariae

thousands of microfilarie migrate through skin tissues, causing various disease symptoms

black fly bites pubects and picks up the infectious larval nematodes (and so the cycle continues)

mosquitoes (family culicidae)

diversity: more than 3,500 species worldwide, females consume nectar and blood meal while males consume nectar, blood is used for egg development

males anatomy: plumose feathery antennae and long pals

female anatomy: normal (or lightly feathered) antennae and generally short palps (maxillary palps)

their life cycle is terrestrial as adults and aquatic as larvae and pupae

unique mosquito: Toxorhynchites

species that does not blood feed, larvae are “elephant mosquito” or “mosquito eater” because they are predatory and consume other mosquito larvae

culex mosquito

house mosquito, they feed on birds, mammals, and reptiles, they are a disease vector of various forms of viral encephalitis (inflammation of the brain) like west nile virus

Aedes mosquitoes

usually have black and white stripes on body and legs, they are originally from tropical and subtropical regions, but now they are found in all continents, they spread by human activities, and are a disease vector of dengue, yellow fever, West Nile virus, zika, and canine heart worm

anopheles mosquitoes

have a variable host specificity, are some of the smaller mosquitoes, they are difficult to control because they bite indoors and outdoors and during day or night, they are a disease vector of mammalian malaria, other various viruses, and canine heart worm

Lepidoptera

Lepis = scales, ptera = wings

includes over 174,000 species of butterflies and moths because they have evolved with flowering plants (angiosperms)

life cycle: holometabolous (complete metamorphosis) where eggs are laid directly on the host plant; pupa: chrysalis

as larvae most of them are herbivores and can be pests and as adults they are nectivores of different ecological niches

Lepidoptera common features

adult wings are covered with scales, long proboscis “sucking without piercing” liquid food (nectar), as immatures they have chewing mouthparts for solid food (plant tissues), their larval features and behaviors as caterpillars are that they have a head, thorax with thoracic legs (3 pairs), and abdomen with prolegs (abdominal, anal) with small hooks, some have warning coloration as a concealment strategy and anti predation adaptation

butterflies

antennae: bulbs or hooks on end

pupa: chrysalis

structure of body: small thin narrow body with large wing

position of wings at rest: fold vertically over abdomen (90 degrees up)

diurnal

about 17,700 species and only about 10% of them are Lepidoptera species

moths

antennae: feather-life (bipectinate) or thread-like (filiform)

pupa: cocoon

structure of body: relatively chubby body

position of wings at rest: fold flat over abdomen (back)

life cycle: complete metamorphosis

while some are active during the day, most moths are nocturnal

diversity: over 174,009 sp. lepidopteran, around 90% of them are moths

importance of olfaction, some species with night color vision, some are important pollinators of plants

defense strategy: tympanal organ that is sensitive to the ultrasound frequencies used in bat’s echolocation, upon detecting approaching bats, evasive maneuvers

great tiger moth goes even farther and produces ultrasonic clicks which confuses bats, and essentially jams their sonar

larval strategies of defense: concealment (within plant tissue with silk)

swallowtails (family papilionidae)

characteristic tail-like extensions of the hindwing, their diversity includes 31 genera, around 600 species, from tropical and temperate regions, as larvae they have the defense mechanism of mimicry by bird droppings, snakes, etc, and osmeterium which emits odorous chemicals, they are relatively large butterflies with beautiful color and pattern on wings, have sexual dimorphism, and their unique morphology is gynandromorph which has both features of female and male

the whites and yellows (family pieridae)

are small to medium with white, yellow, or orange coloration, have “pterin” pigment what is yellow, orange, red on wing scales

california dogface butterfly: state insect of California, endemic range is limited to the state

cabbage butterfly (pieris brassicae): larvae feed on plants with glucosinolates, plant preference is based on this presence of glucosinolates, pests on cabbage and its relatives, herbivore interaction: arabidopsis sp. plant, detection of feeding damage, egg deposition, and vibration (caused by chewing)

gossamer-winged butterflies (family lycaenidae)

smaller in body size compared to other families, some are phytophagous, (plant-feeding), some are entomophagous (feeding on other insects), around 75% engage in an association with ants, this association can be parasitic: Alcon blue butterfly’s nest parasitism

El Segundo Blue: federally designated endangered species, protected habitat west of LAX

brush-footed butterflies (family nymphalidae)

largest family (around 6k species) of butterfly, medium to large, cryptic or startle coloration; reduced forelegs, larvae are defeated by bristles or spines

monarch butterflies (danaus plexippus): one of the few species that migrate (long distances) like birds, host plant and chemical defense: milkweed — toxic compound (cardenolide), larvae of Monarch butterfly sequester this compound for their own protection, sexual dimorphism: wing-vein thickness, scent gland on wing (male only), migration: for spending the winter in warm climates, taking multiple generations to complete

monarch’s migration threatened

due to habitat loss, pesticides and herbicides, climate, change, and protozoan parasites

owlet moth (family noctuidae)

mostly nocturnal, tympanal organs located in metathorax, sensitive to high pitch sounds (ultrasounds), seasonal migration, can cause massive damage on crops (e.g., cabbage looper, army worm, bell worm, corn ear worm)

hawk moths/sphinx moths (family sphingidae)

hovering, often mistaken for hummingbirds

tomato horn worm (maduca quinquemaculata): larvae with a black horn or thorn-like, on its last abdominal segment/pest of several vegetables

defense strategy of larvae: cryptic but we can use UV light to find them on host plants

biocontrol: using a wasp parasiticide to control tomato horn worm populations (fluoresce under UV light), female wasps lay eggs in the body of caterpillars, as eggs hatch, they feed on caterpillar’s tissue, when ready to pupate, larvae exit and spin cocoon on the surface of the horn worm, from these cocoon, the adult wasps will emerge

giant silk, royal or emperor moth (family saturniidae)

many with eye spots (defensive function), and some larvae with poisonous hairs on spines

silk worm moth (family bombycidae)

this is the group that silk worm moth belongs to, bombyx mori: one of the few domesticated insect species and has experienced extensive artificial selection, silk: natural protein fiber, the silk is typically harvested through boiling cocoon, finding end of silk thread, and unwinding

ahimsa silk is obtained from the cocoon after the moth emerges from the cocoon

fungus moth/clothes moth (family tineidae)

unique ability to digest keratin, damages clothes and carpet with animal hair-derived, diet is fur, hair, wool, mushroom, tortoise shell, horns, hooves, examples include case making clothes moth (genus ceratophaga)

moths as pollinators

pollination is a mutualism: moths get nectar and plant gets pollination done, coevolution of the plants and pollinators

yucca plant and yucca moth (family prodoxidae): an obligate mutualism, in many cases, each species of yucca is pollinated by a corresponding species of yucca moth, this is considered obligate because the moth cannot survive without yucca’s food and shelter, the yucca cannot survive without the moth’s pollination

yucca mouth behavior: female visits a flower and collects pollen, she visits another flower, inspects it for other female’s pheromone, and if acceptable, she deposits pollen and lays eggs in ovary of the plant, she marks the flower by depositing her own pheromone to let other moths know the flower is used, developing larvae consume seeds of the yucca, despite serving as food for caterpillars, over 2/3 of the seeds usually escape being eaten

hymenoptera

ants, wasps, bees, and sawflies, hyemos = membrane, ptera = wings, over 150,000 species, have complete metamorphosis, 2 pairs of wings with hamulate, wing is a coupling mechanism, have large compound eyes, chewing mouthparts (mandibles), some with proboscis for liquid food (nectar, honeybee’s “chewing and lapping mouthparts”), ovipositor (in some females is modified into a stinger), diploid females develop from fertilized eggs haploid males develop from unfertilized eggs

larvae subclass apocrita: legless and blind, feed inside

larvae subclass symphyta: caterpillar-like (however, phlegm over 6 pairs, no hooks)

sociality

sociality is more of a gradient, spanning from solitary (least social) to eusocial (extremely social)

1. solitary: nest alone, forage individually

2. communal: nest together, forage individually

3. semi-social: “reproductive” division of labor (hierarchy), nest together

4. eusocial: overlap in generation (offsprings assist their parents)

eusociality

requirements: live in groups as adults, cooperative brood care, reproductive division of labor (caste system), overlapping generation of adults

for eusocial species that live in colonies it is important to communicate through smell and sound because of the darkness in the nest

ants (family formicidae)

around 14,000 described species, ants make up 15-25% of the total terrestrial biomass in tropics, formic acid as a defensive chemical (in some species not all), eusocial insect (castes in females)

petiole: narrow waist in some hymenopteran insects (ants, bees, wasps)

uses of stinger: defense, hunting, laying trail pheromone down

antennae: geniculate antennae (elbow-shaped)

biological aspects: adults are primarily liquid-feeders, infrabuccal pocket (IBP): filter particles, proventriculus reduced to a narrow valve for regular liquid flow, liquid food exchange among colony members (trophallaxis), chemical communication among colony members for various colony functions “pheromone”

ants lay down their chemical trail when they are returning from the food source to their next, often the response to the trail-following pheromone is “concentration-dependent”, nesting can be very extensive and deep, and some build mounds

army ants (subfamily dorylinae)

life without a permanent nest: bivouac, so they have to make a “nest” with their bodies

stationary phase: starts once these larvae turn to pupae

nomadic phase: starts around 10 days after the queen lays eggs

harvest ant, fire ant, leaf cutter ants (subfamily myrmicinae)

two ecological innovations: functional stinger and petiole with 2 nodes; 1. for seed harvesting (harvester ants, fire ants) and 2. for fungus-growing (leaf cutter ants)

leafcutter ants: unique farming of fungus, they collect leaves to serve as the nutritional substrate of their fungal crop, they keep their gardens clean by actively removing pathogens, antimicrobial glondual chemicals, antimicrobial compounds from symbiotic bacteria

slave-making ants: specialized brood parasites that cannot take care of their young

Argentine ant (subfamily dolichoderinae)

they tend hemipteran plant pests (honeydew producers) that interferes with biological control, they displace native arthropods, and are a major urban pest (nuisance)

they have no stinger, shallow nests, prefer sweets, and have formus super colony which means they are spatially separated, but socially connected nests of a single ant species

bees (clade anthophila within the superfamily apoidea)

around 20,000 species in 7 families, they are found in every habitat with insect pollinated flowering plants, hairs (setae): plumose (branched-feather like) to catch and hold pollen, mouthparts: chewing-lapping mouthparts that collect nectar/pollen, about 1/3 of America’s crops rely to some extent on bees pollination

European honey bee (apis mellifera)

honeybee products: honey beeswax produced in “mirror gland”, pollen collected in “pollen basket” on hind leg tibia, composition of honeybee colony (adults): the queen is produced in the colony because they feed larvae with royal jelly continuously

queen and worker (female), drone (male) but only exist sometimes

dance language: direction and distance to the food source is communicated

foreign bees which returned to the next after discovering new food source dance

africanized honey bee

a cross between European honeybee and African honeybee, known for their increased defensiveness

honey bee stinger

barbed, connected to a venom gland

bumblebees (bombus spp.)

over 250 species, often found at high elevations, high latitude than other bees with pollen baskets, buzz pollination: grab onto the flower and move their flight muscles rapidly, releasing the pollens, nectar robbing: make a hole near the base of a flower to get nectar without carrying pollen

stingless bees

around 500 species in the tribe Meliponini, they have stingers but are reduced, they are found in tropical and subtropical regions, their caste determination mechanism differs from that of honeybees because of more pollen fed to the larvae queen, they are important pollinators of some tropical crops

sociality benefits

construction of huge nest sites

widespread foraging for food

constant vigilance against predation or parasitism

sociality costs

vulnerable to the speed of contagious pathogens

nest sites may be exploited by “social parasites” who steal food or attack the brood

individuals may compete with each other for space and resources

solitary bees

make up the majority (over 85%) of bee species, body covered in plumose hairs, no pollen baskets on legs, are pollen and nectar gathering insects, not predators, feed larvae with pollen balls

leaf cutter bees use cut leaves to line their nests

some of them will live in man-made nests easy to domesticate

have scopae: a tuft of hairs on the abdomen of leaf-cutter bees used for collecting pollen

sweat bees (family halictidae)

their diet is salt contents of human sweat, they ground nest

bees

as adults feed on nectar

as larvae feed on pollen

have a “chunky” round body

very hairy body and legs

wasps

as adult feed on nectar

as adult feed on prey

have a cylindrical body

are relatively hairless

family vespidae (includes all the social wasps and non-social ones too)

paper wasps (polistes spp.): aerial nesting

yellow jackets (vespula spp.): some are successful invasive species because of their large colony size (perennial - “multi year” insects), aggressive predation on other abundant insects, and adaptation to human-built structure for nesting

can tell between these two through their antennae color, they nest underground, aerial, and man-made cavity, their diet is not just predatory but also very opportunistic scavengers

hornets (vespa spp.): aerial cavity, attic, other protected location for nesting, their diet is other insects, scavengers including other social insects such as honeybees and paper wasps, some hornets can cause significant damage for commercial honeybee colonies