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Mehmed II
Ottoman sultan known for conquest of Constantinople in 1453.
Akbar the Great
Prominent Mughal emperor recognized for religious toleration and administrative reforms.
Roxelana
Powerful wife of Suleiman, influencing Ottoman politics from the harem.
Qing Dynasty
Last imperial dynasty of China, ruled by Manchu from 1644 until 1912.
Manchu
Ethnic group from Manchuria that established the Qing Dynasty over Han Chinese.
Ottoman Empire
Islamic empire notable for military prowess and relative religious tolerance.
harem
Private space for a ruler’s wives and concubines, often influencing political affairs.
peninsulares
Spanish-born individuals residing in the Americas, at the top of colonial social hierarchy.
criollo
Descendants of Europeans born in the Americas, below peninsulares in social rank.
castas
Mixed-race hierarchical categories in Latin America, defining social status based on ancestry.
mestizos
Individuals of mixed European and indigenous ancestry in colonial Latin America.
mulattos
Individuals of mixed European and African ancestry, positioned in the colonial caste system.
zambos
Individuals of mixed indigenous and African ancestry, part of colonial social hierarchy.
Barbary pirates
North African pirates engaging in maritime raiding and slave trading activities.
queues
Mandatory braided hairstyle imposed by Qing rulers on Han Chinese as a loyalty test.
Sephardic Jew
Jewish descendants from Spain, particularly post-expulsion in 1492.
Ashkenazi Jew
Jewish individuals primarily from Central and Eastern Europe, historically referred to as German
Maratha Empire
A Hindu-led state in India that emerged from resistance against Mughal rule in the late 17th century.
Ana Nzinga
A 17th-century African queen known for her resistance against Portuguese colonial forces.
Yemelyan Pugachev
A leader of a peasant rebellion against Catherine the Great in 1774 in Russia.
Queen Nanny
A leader of the Maroons in Jamaica, recognized as a national hero for her resistance against British enslavement.
Fronde
Series of civil disturbances in France during the 1640s against government authority.
Metacom’s War
A conflict in the 1670s between Native Americans and British settlers in New England, marking a significant resistance effort.
Pugachev Rebellion
A failed peasant revolt in Russia against the nobility and government in 1774.
Pueblo Revolt
An uprising in 1680 by Indigenous peoples against Spanish colonial rule in present-day New Mexico.
Maroon wars
Conflicts in Jamaica during the 18th century between escaped enslaved people and British forces.
Commercial Revolution
Transition to a trade-based economy primarily using gold and silver.
Price Revolution
Significant increase in prices during the 16th and early 17th centuries due to inflation.
joint-stock companies
Business entities where investors share profits and risks through stock ownership.
East India Company
A British trading corporation focused on commerce in Asia.
Dutch East India Company
A successful 17th-century joint-stock company that dominated trade in spices and Southeast Asia.
triangular trade
Atlantic trading system involving three segments: Europe, Africa, and the Americas.
monopolies
Exclusive rights granted to certain merchants or companies by governments to control trade.
Santería
An Afro-Caribbean religion merging African traditions and Catholicism.
Virgin of Guadalupe
A Catholic figure representing the blending of indigenous and Spanish cultures.
viceroys
Royal representatives appointed to govern colonies in the Americas.
Oyo
A West African state involved in capturing and selling enslaved people
trading post empire
An empire built on a network of trading posts controlling key trade routes instead of large territories.
mercantilism
Economic theory emphasizing national wealth through exports over imports, requiring heavy government intervention.
Manila
Spanish colonial city in the Philippines, pivotal for trans-Pacific trade, particularly in silver and spices.
Prince Henry the Navigator
Portuguese prince who significantly advanced maritime exploration by sponsoring expeditions along the African coast.
Christopher Columbus
Explorer credited with the 1492 discovery of the Americas, representing the start of widespread European exploration.
Bartholomew Diaz
Portuguese explorer who first rounded the Cape of Good Hope in 1488, opening sea routes to the East.
Vasco Da Gama
First European to reach India by sea, establishing direct trade routes in 1498.
Ferdinand Magellan
Explorer who led the first expedition to circumnavigate the globe, demonstrating the world's vastness.
northwest passage
A sought-after maritime route through North America to Asia, pursued by several explorers but ultimately not found.
Quebec
First permanent French settlement in North America, established as a fur trading post in the early 17th century.
Jamestown
The first successful English colony in the Americas, founded in 1607 in Virginia.
New Amsterdam
Dutch settlement on the island of Manhattan, which became a major trade hub before being taken by the English
smallpox
A deadly disease introduced to the Americas by Europeans that caused widespread mortality among indigenous populations.
conquistadores
Spanish explorers and conquerors who led expeditions to conquer indigenous lands in the Americas for Spain.
Columbian Exchange
The extensive transfer of goods, crops, and diseases between the Americas and the Eastern Hemisphere following European exploration.
transatlantic slave trade
The brutal trade network that forcibly transported millions of Africans to the Americas for slave labor.
engenhos
Large-scale sugar plantations in Portuguese Brazil, central to the economy and reliant on enslaved labor for production.
cash crop
Agricultural products grown primarily for profit, significantly shaping economies in the Americas and Europe.
African Diaspora
The dispersal and cultural blending of African peoples as a result of slavery in the Americas, leading to significant cultural impacts
Asante Empire
West African kingdom known for its wealth and centralization in the 18th century.
Aztec Empire
Mesoamerican civilization known for its urban centers, tribute system, and eventual conquest by Spain.
Inca Empire
South American empire noted for its vast territories, advanced engineering, and fall to Spanish conquistadors.
Mexico City
Capital of New Spain, built on the ruins of Tenochtitlán after the Spanish conquest.
Francisco Pizarro
Spanish conquistador who led the expedition that conquered the Inca Empire in the 16th century.
Atahualpa
Last emperor of the Inca Empire, captured and executed by Pizarro's forces.
Treaty of Tordesillas
1494 agreement dividing newly discovered lands between Spain and Portugal.
Hispaniola
Caribbean island colonized by Spain, home to the first European settlement in the Americas.
Conquistadores
Spanish explorers and conquerors who led expeditions in the Americas to claim territories.
Mercantilism
Economic theory that promoted government regulation of a nation's economy for augmenting state power.
Indentured Servitude
Labor system where individuals contracted to work for a fixed term in exchange for passage.
Chattel Slavery
System where individuals were considered property, bought and sold as commodities.
Encomienda
Labor system instituted by the Spanish crown, allowing colonists to demand labor from indigenous peoples.
Mit’a System
Incan labor tax system adapted by the Spanish to demand labor for mining and agriculture.
Middle Passage
The horrific voyage of enslaved Africans across the Atlantic to the Americas
Richard Arkwright
Developer of the water frame and father of factory system.
Industrial Revolution
Era of dramatic industrialization and mechanization between 1750-1900.
Eli Whitney
Inventor known for creating interchangeable parts for firearms.
Manchester
Major industrial city known for textile manufacturing.
Liverpool
Significant port city central to trade and industrialization in Britain.
Trans-Siberian Railroad
Major railway connecting Moscow to the Pacific Ocean, facilitating trade.
Alexander Graham Bell
Inventor who patented the telephone in 1876.
Gugliemo Marconi
Physicist known for developing radio communication in the early 20th century.
Transcontinental Railroad
Railway connecting the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans, completed in 1869.
James Watt
Developer of a more efficient steam engine, improving industrial productivity.
Mamluks
A military class in Egypt, originally composed of enslaved Turks, that dominated the region for centuries.
Muhammad Ali
An Albanian officer turned governor in Egypt who implemented military and economic reforms, modernizing the country.
Commodore Matthew Perry
A U.S. naval officer who compelled Japan to open trade in the mid-19th century, ending its isolation.
Automatic loom
A machine designed to weave cloth automatically, revolutionizing textile production in the early 20th century.
Meiji Restoration
A period of rapid modernization in Japan (1868) that restored imperial rule and abolished feudalism.
Charter Oath
A document from 1868 that outlined the modernization goals of Japan's new government, promoting democracy and reforms. Structures
Cecil Rhodes
A British imperialist who promoted resource extraction in Africa, notably through the De Beers diamond company.
Hong Kong and Shanghai Banking Corporation
A major bank established in 1865, facilitating global banking and corporate finance.
Unilever Corporation
A multinational company focused on consumer goods, known for household products including soap.
Bessemer process
An efficient method for producing steel, critical to the development of the industrial economy in the 19th century. Communists
Karl Marx
A German philosopher and economist who critiqued capitalism, advocating for the proletariat's revolutionary role in establishing socialism.
Friedrich Engels
A collaborator with Marx who co-authored the Communist Manifesto, emphasizing class struggle and the need for societal change.
Communist Manifesto
A political pamphlet outlining the theories of communism, detailing the struggles between the proletariat and bourgeoisie.
John Stuart Mill
A British philosopher advocating for utilitarianism, promoting reforms to improve worker conditions and social justice.
Tanzimat
A series of reforms (1839–1876) aimed at modernizing the Ottoman Empire, including legal and educational changes.
Self-Strengthening Movement
A late 19th century reform effort in China aiming to modernize military and industrial capabilities to resist foreign powers.
Hundred Days of Reform
A brief but ambitious attempt in 1898 to modernize China's political and educational systems, ultimately blocked by conservatives.
Empress Cixi
The conservative dowager empress of China who initially opposed reforms but later recognized the need for modernization efforts.
Henry VIII
English king known for his six marriages and the English Reformation
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