unit 1: language of anatomy, directional terms

these terms are absolute and can be applied in any body position, and they consistently have the same meaning in all vertebrate animals.

cephalad (cranial)/caudal

toward the head/toward the tail; In

humans, these terms are used interchangeably with superior

and inferior, but in four-legged animals they are synonymous

with anterior and posterior, respectively

ventral/dorsal

bellyside/backside; These terms are used

chiefly in discussing the comparative anatomy of animals,

assuming the animal is standing. In humans, the terms ventral

and dorsal are used interchangeably with the terms anterior

and posterior, but in four-legged animals, ventral and dorsal are

synonymous with inferior and superior, respectively.

proximal/distal

nearer the trunk or attached end/farther from the trunk or point of attachment—These terms are used primarily to locate various areas of the body limbs. For example, the

fingers are distal to the elbow; the knee is proximal to the toes.

However, these terms may also be used to indicate regions

(closer to or farther from the head) of internal tubular organs.

superficial (external)/deep (internal)

toward or at the body surface/away from the body surface--ex. the skin is superficial to the skeletal muscles, and the lungs are deep to the rib cage.