phil202 - fallacies

appeal to force

arguer threatens the reader/listener; a threat

appeal to pity

arguer elicits pity from reader/listener; you should feel bad for me

appeal to the people

arguer appeals to people’s basic needs for love, security, or respect; people’s basic needs to fit into society

-bandwagon argument (afraid to be left out)

-appeal to vanity

-appeal to snobbery

argument against the person (ad hominem)

arguer personally attacks the person arguing by verbally abusing them; addressing the person, not the argument

-verbal abuse (ad hominem abusive)

-calls the person a hypocrite (tu quoque)

accident

a general rule is applied to a specific case it wasn’t intended to cover

straw man

taking an original argument and distorting it

missing the point

premises support one particular conclusion, but a completely different conclusin is drawn

red herring

ignoring the original argument and creating a new one to divert the attention of the reader

appeal to unqualified authority

when the authority being cited lacks credibility, requisite expertise, may be biased/prejudiced, have motive to lie, or lack ability to perceive/recall

appeal to ignorance

taking a conclusion from something that cannot be proven one way or the other

hasty generalization (converse accident)

when an argument draws a conclusion about all member of a group from evidence that pertains to a selected sample

false cause

link between premises and conclusion are through an imaginary link

slippery slope

conclusion rests on the idea of a chain reaction that’s said to occur when there is no evidence that the reaction will occur

weak analogy

analogy isn’t strong enough to support the conclusion

begging the question

the arguer creates the illusion that inadequate premises provide adequate support for the conclusion by leaving out a possibly false (shaky) key premise

complex question

tricks you into answering two questions while only asking one, and a single answer is given to both questions

false dichotomy

either…or premise, that presents two options that are unlikely, only to then remove the undesirable option, tricking you into accepting the other option

suppressed evidence

occurs when a premise entirely leaves out a key piece of info/evidence that would drastically change the outcome if it wasn’t left out

equivocation

occurs when a word or phrase is being used in two different ways or sense in the same argument

amphiboly

think ambiguous; occurs when the arguer misinterprets an ambiguous statement and then draws a conclusion based on the faulty interpretation

composition

parts → whole incorrectly

division

whole → parts incorrectly

child to playmate: sesame street is the best show on tv; and if you don’t believe it, i’m going to call my big brother over here and he’s going to beat you up.

appeal to force

taxpayer to judge: your honor, i admit that i declared thirteen children as dependents on my tax return, even though i only have two. but if you find me guilty of tax evasion, my reputation will be ruined. i’ll probably lose my job, my poor wife will not be able to have the operation that she desperately needs, and my kids will starve. surely i am not guilty. 

appeal to pity

(bandwagon) of course you want to buy zing toothpaste. why, 90 percent of america brushes with zing.

(appeal to vanity) the few, the proud, the marines.

(appeal to snobbery) A rolls-royce is not for everyone. if you qualify as one of the select few, this distinguished classic may be seen and driven at british motor cars, ltd. (by appointment only, please.)

appeal to the people

Television entertainer Bill Maher argues that religion is just a lot of foolish nonsense.  But Maher is an arrogant, shameless, self-righteous pig.  Obviously his arguments are not worth listening to. 

argument against the person

Freedom of speech is a constitutionally guaranteed right. Therefore, John Q. Radical should not be arrested for his speech that incited the riot last week.

accident

Mr. Goldberg has argued against prayer in public schools.  Obviously Mr. Goldberg advocates atheism. But atheism is what they used to have in Russia.  Atheism leads to the suppression of all religions and the replacement of God by an omnipotent state.  Is that what we want for this country?  I hardly think so.  Clearly Mr. Goldberg’s argument is nonsense. 

straw man

Crimes of theft and robbery have been increasing at an alarming rate lately. The conclusion is obvious: We must reinstate the death penalty immediately.

missing the point

Environmentalists are continually harping about the dangers of nuclear power.  Unfortunately, electricity is dangerous no matter where it comes from.  Every year hundreds of people are electrocuted by accident.  Since most of these accidents are caused by carelessness, they could be avoided if people would just exercise greater caution. 

red herring

lacking credibility – physician, not physicist)

Dr. Bradshaw, our family physician, has stated that the creation of muonic atoms of deuterium and tritium hold the key to producing a sustained nuclear fusion reaction at room temperature.  In view of Dr. Bradshaw’s expertise as a physician, we must conclude that this is indeed true.

(biased or prejudiced)

David Duke, former Grand Wizard of the Ku Klux Klan, has stated, “Jews are not good Americans.  They have no understanding of what America is.”  On the basis of Duke’s authority, we must therefore conclude that the Jews in this country are un-American.   

appeal to unqualified authority

People have been trying for centuries to provide conclusive evidence for the claims of astrology, and no one has ever succeeded. Therefore, we must conclude that astrology is a lot of nonsense. 

or

People have been trying for centuries to disprove the claims of astrology, and no one has ever succeeded.  Therefore we must conclude that the claims of astrology are true.

appeal to ignorance

Today’s money managers are a pack of thieves, every last one of them.  Look at Bernie Madoff and Robert Allen Stanford.  They ripped off billions of dollars from thousands of trusting clients. And Raj Rajaratnam profited to the tune of millions of dollars through illegal insider trading. 

hasty generalization

During the past two months, every time the cheerleaders have worn blue ribbons in their hair, the basketball team has been defeated.  Therefore, to prevent defeats in the future, the cheerleaders should get rid of those blue ribbons.

false cause

Immediate steps should be taken to outlaw pornography once and for all. The continued manufacture and sale of pornographic material will almost certainly lead to an increase in sex-related crimes such as rape and incest.  This in turn will gradually erode the moral fabric of society and result in an increase in crimes of all sorts.  Eventually a complete disintegration of law and order will occur, leading in the end to the total collapse of civilization.

or

Attempts to outlaw pornography threaten basic civil rights and should be summarily abandoned.  If pornography is outlawed, censorship of newspapers and news magazines is only a short step away.  After that there will be censorship of textbooks, political speeches, and the content of lectures delivered by university professors.  Complete mind control by the central government will be the inevitable result.

slippery slope

Amber’s dog is similar in many ways to Kyle’s cat. Both like being petted, they enjoy being around people, they beg for food at the dinner table, and they sleep with their owners.  Amber’s dog loves to romp on the beach with Amber. Therefore, Kyle’s cat probably loves to romp on the beach with Kyle

weak analogy

Murder is morally wrong. This being the case, it follows that abortion is morally wrong.

begging the question

Have you stopped cheating on your exams?

or

Where did you hide the marijuana that you were smoking?

complex question

Either you let me attend the New Kids on the Block concert or I’ll be miserable for the rest of my life.  I know you don’t want me to be miserable for the rest of my life. Therefore, it follows that you’ll let me attend the concert.  

false dichotomy

The ad for Kentucky Fried Chicken says, “Buy a bucket of chicken and have a barrel of fun!” Therefore, if we buy a bucket of that chicken, we will be guaranteed to have lots of fun.

suppressed evidence

Some triangles are obtuse.  Whatever is obtuse is ignorant. Therefore, some triangles are ignorant.

equivocation

The tour guide said that standing in Greenwich Village, the Empire State Building could easily be seen.  It follows that the Empire State Building is in Greenwich Village.

amphiboly

Maria likes anchovies.  She also likes chocolate ice cream. Therefore, it is certain that she would like a chocolate sundae topped with anchovies.

or

Sodium and chlorine, the atomic components of salt, are both deadly poisons. Therefore, salt is a deadly poison. 

composition

Salt is a nonpoisonous compound. Therefore, its component elements, sodium and chlorine, are nonpoisonous.

division