Memory and Learning Exam Study Guide

A comprehensive set of vocabulary flashcards designed to aid in the study of memory and learning for an upcoming exam. Each card contains key terms and definitions to help reinforce important concepts.

Memory

The mental process of encoding, storing, and retrieving information.

Three Stage Model of Memory

Model proposed by Atkinson & Shiffrin consisting of Sensory Memory, Short-Term Memory, and Long-Term Memory.

Sensory Memory

Holds information for a fraction of a second to a few seconds.

Short-Term Memory (STM)

Holds information for about 20–30 seconds without rehearsal.

Long-Term Memory (LTM)

Stores information indefinitely, potentially for a lifetime.

Maintenance Rehearsal

Process of repeatedly verbalizing or thinking about information to keep it in short-term memory longer.

George Miller's Magic Number

The capacity of short-term memory, typically holding 5 to 9 items.

Chunking

Grouping related pieces of information together to improve memory capacity.

Phonological Loop

Component of Baddeley's model that processes verbal and auditory information.

Visuospatial Sketchpad

Component of Baddeley's model that processes visual and spatial information.

Central Executive

Component of Baddeley's model that directs attention and manages cognitive tasks.

Elaborative Rehearsal

Connecting new information to existing knowledge to improve memory encoding.

Self-Referencing

Relating information to personal experiences to enhance memory.

Mnemonic Devices

Techniques that aid memory retention through acronyms, rhymes, or imagery.

Distributed Practice

Spacing out study sessions to improve memory retention.

Deep Processing

Focusing on meaning rather than surface details to enhance memory encoding.

Explicit (Declarative) Memory

Conscious recall of facts and experiences.

Episodic Memory

A type of explicit memory related to personal experiences and events.

Semantic Memory

A type of explicit memory pertaining to general knowledge and facts.

Implicit (Nondeclarative) Memory

Unconscious memory that affects behavior without conscious awareness.

Procedural Memory

A type of implicit memory involving skills and habits.

Priming

Implicit memory effect where exposure to one stimulus influences response to another.

Classical Conditioning

Learning through associations between stimuli, as illustrated by Pavlov's dogs.

Operant Conditioning

Learning through consequences, where behavior is shaped by rewards or punishments.

Spontaneous Recovery

The reappearance of a conditioned response after a period of rest.

Extinction

The weakening of a learned response when the conditioned stimulus is repeatedly presented without the unconditioned stimulus.

Serial Position Effect

The tendency to recall items at the beginning and end of a list better than those in the middle.

Primacy Effect

Better recall of items at the beginning of a list due to greater rehearsal.

Recency Effect

Better recall of the most recent items still in short-term memory.

Context-Dependent Memory

Improved recall when studying and testing in the same location.

State-Dependent Memory

Improved recall when in the same emotional or physical state during study and recall.

Flashbulb Memories

Vivid, detailed memories of emotionally significant events.

Schemas

Cognitive frameworks that help organize and interpret information.

Misinformation Effect

Distortion of memory recall due to post-event information.

Interference Theory

Competing memories disrupt the retrieval of information.

Proactive Interference

Older memories disrupt new learning.

Retroactive Interference

New learning interferes with the recall of old information.

Decay Theory

Memory traces fade over time if not accessed.

Amnesia

Significant loss of memory due to brain injury, disease, or psychological trauma.

Retrograde Amnesia

Inability to recall past memories before brain damage.

Anterograde Amnesia

Inability to form new long-term memories after brain damage.

Hippocampus

Brain structure crucial for encoding new declarative memories.

Long-Term Potentiation (LTP)

Long-term strengthening of synaptic connections based on use.

Hebb's Rule

Neurons that fire together, wire together.

Optogenetics

Technique to activate specific neurons using light to study memory.

B.F. Skinner

Behaviorist who expanded operant conditioning theory.

Positive Reinforcement

Adding a desirable stimulus to encourage behavior.

Negative Reinforcement

Removing an unpleasant stimulus to encourage behavior.

Positive Punishment

Adding an unpleasant stimulus to reduce behavior.

Negative Punishment

Removing a desirable stimulus to reduce behavior.

Continuous Reinforcement

Rewarding a behavior every time it occurs.

Partial Reinforcement

Reinforcement of behavior only sometimes, making it more resistant to extinction.

Fixed Ratio Schedule

Reinforcement after a set number of responses.

Variable Ratio Schedule

Reinforcement after a random number of responses.

Fixed Interval Schedule

Reinforcement after a set amount of time.

Variable Interval Schedule

Reinforcement after random time intervals.

Observational Learning

Learning by observing others, rather than through direct experience.

Albert Bandura

Psychologist known for social learning theory and the Bobo Doll experiment.

Vicarious Reinforcement

Learning by observing others being rewarded or punished.

Cognitive Maps

Mental representations of environments, demonstrated by Tolman's research.

Latent Learning

Learning that occurs but is not immediately demonstrated until reinforcement is introduced.

Learned Helplessness

Condition where individuals feel unable to escape or avoid unpleasant situations due to repeated failure.

Cognitive Processing

Mental activities that occur during learning, impacting conditioning.

Taste Aversions

Classical conditioning where one learns to avoid certain foods post-illness.

Emotional Memory

Memories influenced by emotional states, particularly those involving fear.

Memory Reconstruction

The process of recalling memories that can change over time due to suggestions and biases.

False Memory

Recollections of events that never occurred, often implanted through suggestion.

Eyewitness Testimony

Testimony that is often unreliable due to memory distortion.

Post-Event Misinformation

Alteration of memories by information presented after the event.

Elizabeth Loftus

Researcher known for studies on false memories and eyewitness testimony.

Cognitive Frameworks

Schemas that organize and assimilate incoming information.

Neural Connections

Physical links between neurons that strengthen during learning.

Bruce McEwen

Neuroscientist who studied stress and neural plasticity.

Neuroplasticity

The brain's ability to change and adapt based on experience.

Anosmia

Loss of the ability to smell, often associated with early stages of Alzheimer’s.

Beta-Amyloid Plaques

Protein aggregates associated with the progression of Alzheimer’s Disease.

Neurofibrillary Tangles

Twisted fibers found in the brains of Alzheimer’s patients affecting neuron function.

Prodromal Phase

Early stage of Alzheimer’s before clear impairments appear.

Emotional Regulation

How emotions are managed and expressed, crucial for memory processes.

Cognitive Function

Mental processes including thinking, memory, reasoning.

Long-Term Memory Consolidation

The process by which short-term memories are transformed into long-term ones.

Medial Temporal Lobe

Brain area involved in the consolidation of long-term memories.

Prefrontal Cortex

Region of the brain responsible for working memory and executive function.

Basal Ganglia

Brain structures important for procedural memory.

Cerebellum

Brain structure involved in motor control and procedural memory.

Dementia

Progressive decline in cognitive functions including memory.

Alzheimer's Disease

A type of dementia characterized by memory loss, cognitive decline, and personality changes.

Hippocampal Formation

Part of the brain essential for processing and storing memory.

Learning Through Experience

The principle that organisms learn behaviors based on their direct interactions with the environment.

Psychological Harm

Negative consequences resulting from experimental psychology practices.

Schema-Driven Errors

Memory errors caused by the influence of existing cognitive frameworks.

Cultural Impact on Memory

The influence of cultural background on memory formation and retrieval.

Episodic Memory Retrieval

The process of recalling personal experiences.

Semantic Encoding

Process of encoding the meaning of information for storage.

Memory Performance

Ability to recall information accurately.

Memory Cues

Stimuli that aid in memory retrieval.

Memory Trace (Engram)

The physical and biochemical changes in the brain that represent a stored memory.

Neuronal Plasticity

Ability of neurons to change in form and function.

Passive vs Active Memory

Distinction between memory as a simple storage system versus an active processing system.

Experience-Dependent Plasticity

Changes in the brain resulting from experiences that shape neural circuits.