AP Lang

Rhetoric

the art of persuasion and argument

Rhetorical strategies

any writing style choice that contributes to the speaker's purpose, appeals to their audience and/or adds to their persuasive power

Rhetorical analysis

analyzing how someone else's argument works to achieve their purpose and appeal to their audience

Rhetorical Situation

the interplay between audience, speaker, context, exigency and purpose in an argument..
This is significant because it is what we consider when we write or analyze an argument.

Rhetorical Appeals

techniques that appeal to the audience and contribute to the speaker's purpose.

Pathos

emotional appeals (appeals to a specific emotion in the audience like patriotism or shame)

Logos

appeals to reason and logic. These appeals include evidence and logical reasoning.

Ethos

the speaker's credibility OR an appeal to the audience's sense of justice and ethics

Claim

Your argument's stance or position. A claim can be "pro" (in support of, defending) "con" (against, challenging) or "qualified" which means it is either pro or con, but you are limiting how pro or con your position is.

To qualify (qualification of an argument or statement) A qualification

is a limitation on the scope or precision of your claim, often expressing degrees of confidence or probability.

Counter argue

to acknowledge the logical argument that opposes the point you make

Refute

to prove the counter argument wrong

Concede

to acknowledge there is some merit to the opposing viewpoint.

Diction: word choice Denotation

the meaning of a word, the definition.

Connotation

the feeling associated with the word (positive, neutral, negative)Both connotation and denotation are dependent on context (how the word is used)

Syntax: sentence structure (how a sentence is constructed or built)

A complete sentence has a subject and predicate (a verb phrase). For persuasive impact, it is important to use sentence length to create emphasis and rhythm, and sentence variety for interest, elaboration, impact and sophistication.

Tone

the speaker's attitude toward the subject. ( Tone is usually conveyed through diction, detail, imagery, connotation).

Allusion

Allusion is a brief and indirect reference to a person, place, thing or idea of historical, cultural, literary or political significance.
Ex. "I knew our time in Edenic love would not last. Mere mortals, we were bound to fall from paradise and have to face reality sooner or later." "Hey Einstein-how did you learn all these new terms so quickly?" "Should we follow the president's order, or is it just a siren's call, misleading us down a dangerous path?

Analogy

An analogy is a comparison in which an idea or a thing is compared to another thing that is quite different from it. It aims at explaining that idea or thing by comparing it to something that is familiar. Metaphors and similes are tools used to draw an analogy. Therefore, analogy is more extensive and elaborate than either a simile or a metaphor.
Ex. "The structure of an atom is like a solar system. The nucleus is the sun, and electrons are the planets revolving around their sun."

Juxtaposition

to place two concepts, characters, ideas, or places near or next to each other so that the reader will compare and contrast them. (italicized in example below)

Antithesis

the juxtaposition of contrasting ideas (bolded/underlined below)
"Millions of hard-working Americans will suffer due to increased prices while a small handful of wealthy executives will benefit due to increased profits."
"We must learn to live together as brothers, or perish together as fools." Dr. MLK

Imagery

descriptive sensory details (sight, sound, taste, touch, smell)

Irony

the intended meaning is the opposite of what is stated, often implying ridicule or sarcasm; a state of affairs or events that is the reverse of what is expected.

Anecdote

A brief narrative (story) used to illustrate or elaborate on an idea or point

Enumerate

to list details, to elaborate in list form.

Climax

Arrangement of words, phrases, or clauses in an order of increasing importance.
Ex: "More than that, we rejoice in our sufferings, knowing that suffering produces endurance , endurance produces character, and character produces hope, and hope does not disappoint us.."-St. Paul, Romans

Euphemism

a mild or indirect word or expression substituted for one considered to be too harsh or blunt when referring to something unpleasant or embarrassing. Euphemism in argument is often a tactic for "softening" or evading the truth or framing an argument to your advantage.
Ex. We have to let you go. (This is euphemism for firing someone) My grandmother passed away when I was twelve years old.

Hyperbole

The use of exaggerated terms for the purpose of emphasis or heightened effect.
Ex. His jaw dropped to the floor with surprise!

Understatement

The presentation of something as being smaller, worse, or less important than it actually is.
Ex. The destructive, category five hurricane left the coastal village untidy.

Metonymy

figurative language that suggests the idea it replaces.Ex: He green lighted the project despite the red flags. "Green lighted" suggests giving something the go ahead; "red flags" are suggestive of a warning signal
Ex. He achieved success through blood, sweat and tears. "Blood sweat and tears" is suggestive of hard work and sacrifice.

Synecdoche

a small part that represents the entire thing, or the entire thing to represent a small part.
Ex. In this war against poverty, we need more boots on the ground and less suits in political offices.. "Boots" are part of a frontline worker's uniform "suits" are a part of what a political figure wears and therefore symbolize an office worker.
Ex: All hands on deck. " hands", a part of a worker symbolizes the whole worker
Nice wheels. "Wheels", a part of the car, symbolizes the whole car

Metaphor

a non-literal figure of speech in which an implied comparison between two unlike things furthers understanding. Ex. He fell through the trapdoor of depression.

Paradox

something that is seemingly contradictory, but when thought about, it can be true or sensical OR something that is just contradictory to logic.
Ex: "The enemy of my enemy is my friend."

Oxymoron

a compressed (two word) paradox. Ex. bitter-sweet, loud silence, organized chaos

Asyndeton

Deliberate omission of the conjunctions between a series of related clauses. The effect of this device is to produce a hurried rhythm in the sentence.(Conjunctions are "joiner" words like: for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so.
Ex: "I came, I saw, I conquered." -Julius Caesar (instead of "I came, and I saw, and I conquered")

Polysyndeton

Deliberate use of many conjunctions (conjunctions: for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so). The effect of polysyndeton is to slow down the rhythm of the sentence or emphasize the scope of a list. This is the opposite of asyndeton. Ex: We lived and loved and laughed and let the future unfold.

Anaphora

Repetition of the same word or groups of words at the beginning of successive clauses or sentences. This device creates unity and rhythm between clauses/sentences. When a key word or phrase is repeated, it also creates emphasis that bolsters an argument.
Ex: "We shall fight on the beaches, we shall fight on the landing grounds, we shall fight in the fields and in the streets, we shall fight in the hills." -- Winston Churchill

Epistrophe

Same as anaphora but the key word or phrase is repeated at the end of successive clauses or sentences.
Ex: "But to all of those who would be tempted by weakness, let us leave no doubt that we will be as strong as we need to be for as long as we need to be." Richard Nixon, First Inaugural Address
"What lies behind us, and what lies before us, are small matters compared to what lies within us."
"I swear to tell the truth, the whole truth and nothing but the truth."

Repetition of word sounds: rhyme/assonance

repetition of vowel sounds in words near each other Ex. You snooze, you lose (repetition of "ew" sound).

Alliteration

repetition of initial consonants in two or more adjacent (next to each other or near) words. The purposeful use of this sound device provides emphasis, musicality and rhythm. Ex for "S": "Already American vessels have been searched, seized, and sank."- John F. Kennedy, Profiles in Courage. Cool kids quickly code computers. (notice the consonant SOUND is repeated, not necessarily the consonant.)

Polyptoton

the repetition of a root word for rhetorical effect. Ex. "Absolute power corrupts absolutely." "The things you own end up owning you." "It is useless only due to disuse."