ib psych unit 1

independent measures- Experimental Designs

The experiment could have more than two groups

depending on how many IV’s you use and how many levels

each variable has

Strengths- no order effects, less demand characteristics

Weaknesses- participant variables, need more participants 

matched pairs- Experimental Designs

paticipants are matched in terms of key vaiables

One member of each pair is then placed into

the experimental group and the other

member into the control group, placement is a random assignment from the characteristic in the sample

strengths-  ability to control confounding variables

weaknesses- mortality- if one of the pairs drops out it can affect the data & can’t match perfectly

- -time consuming to create pairs

- Eliminates order effect & reduces participant variables

repeated measures- Experimental Designs

collecting multiple data points from the same participants under different experimental conditions or at different times, allowing researchers to study within-individual changes and increase statistical power

strengths- Overcomes influence of PARTICIPANT VARIABILITY as an extraneous variable

- Comparisons are more reliable

- Required to use smaller sample sizes as well- could be more favorable

random sample

ideal approach to make sample representative, randomize

strengths- size, gender, age, lots of data

limitations-  high cost in time and resources 

stratified sample

method of sampling that involves the division of a population into smaller sub groups known as strata

strengths- reduce sampling bias, guaranteeing accurate proportions

limitations- requires accurate population data 

convenience sample

recruiting participants who are more accessible

strengths- available when needed

limitations- sampling bias and limited generalizability (external validity) 

self selecting sample

people who volunteer for the sample

strengths- quick and easy 

limitations- lack of randomizations, self selection bias 

informed consent protection from harm- Ethics

protects research participants by ensuring they understand the study's purpose, procedures, and potential risks and benefits before participation

deception- Ethics

The act of misleading someone to believe something untrue, creates a false belief

debriefing- Ethics

post-experimental explanation given to research participants, detailing the study's purpose, methods, and any deception used, and allowing them to ask questions and ensure their well-being after the study is complete

focus group

qualitative research method: special type of semi structured interview, small group

case study 

research method that involves an in depth examination of a single individual, group or event 

true experiment

a research method designed to establish a cause-and-effect relationship between variables through manipulation, control, and random assignment

field experiment

a study that manipulates an independent variable in a real-world setting to observe its effect on participant behavior

natural experiment

An observational study where naturally occurring events or situations, rather than researcher manipulation, create a comparison between groups, nothing manipulated by researcher

operationalize variable

define it by how it will be measured or manipulated in a specific, concrete way, turning an abstract concept into a concrete, observable, and measurable process or characteristic

external validity

the extent to which the results of a psychological study can be generalized to other people, situations, and settings

internal validity

how well the methodological quality of the experiment established a cause-and-effect relationship

selection- Threats to Internal Validity

when groups are not equivalent at the start of the experiment (occurs in independent measures, matched pair)

history- Threats to Internal Validity

external events that occur to participants during the study 

maturation- Threats to Internal Validity

Participants go through natural developmental processes

testing effect- Threats to Internal Validity

1st measurement of the DV may affect the second measurement 

instrumentation- Threats to Internal Validity

occurs when the instrument measuring the DV changes slightly between measurements 

to avoid: standardize measurement conditions

regression to them mean- Threats to Internal Validity

Bias that becomes a concern when the initial score on the DV is extreme 

mortality- Threats to Internal Validity

when participants drop out during an experiment (can become problem if not random)

demand characteristics- Threats to Internal Validity

situation where participants understand the purpose of the experiment and change their behavior subconsciously to fit that interpretation

experimenter bias- Threats to Internal Validity

situation where the researcher unintentionally exerts on influence on the results of the study 

How are quantitative studies similar and/or different to qualitative research

quan- numerical data to find patterns and relationships, generalized patterns 

qual- collect descriptive, non-numerical data through interviews/observations, in-depth

both- aim to gain insight into each experiment but differ in the type of data, and conclusions 

triangulation qualitative

A combination of different approaches to collect and interpret data

raport

ensure that participants are being honest and remind them their right to withdraw and voluntary participation

iterative questioning 

risk that participants will distort data either intentionally or unintentionally to try and create a certain impression on the researcher 

reflexivity

Researchers should reflect on the possibility that their own biases might have interfered with the observations or interpretation

credibility checks

checking the accuracy of data by asking participants themselves to read transcripts of interviews or field notes of observations and confirm that transcripts or notes are an accurate representation of what they said

thick descriptions

explaining not just the observed behavior but also the context in which it occurred so that the description becomes meaningful to an outsider who never observed the experiment first hand

acquiescence bias (participant bias)

a tendency to give positive answers whatever the question is

Social Desirability bias (participant bias)

participants’ tendency to respond or behave in a way that they think will make them more liked or accepted

dominant respondent bias (participant bias)

occurs in group interview setting when one of the participants influences the behavior and responses of the others 

sensitivity bias (participant bias)

The tendency of participants to answer the questions honestly, but distort their responses on sensitive subjects

confirmation bias (researcher bias)

occurs when the researcher has a prior relief and uses the research in an unintentional attempt to confirm the belief 

leading question bias (researcher bias)

occurs when respondents in an interview are inclined to answer in a certain way b/c the wording of the question encourages them to do so

question order bias (researcher bias)

occurs when responders to one question influence the participants’ responses to the following questions 

sampling bias (researcher bias)

occurs when the sample is not adequate for the aims of the research

biased reporting (researcher bias)

occurs when some findings of the study are not equally represented in the research repoort

sample types, qualitative: quota sampling 

sampling method where researchers select participants based on pre set proportions of certain characteristics 

sample types, qualitative: purposive sampling

sampling method where the researchers deliberately select participants based on their knowledge, experience, and characteristics relevant to the research

sample types, qualitative: theoretical sampling

where data collection and analysis are intertwined allowing the researcher to select new participants or data sources based on the theory

sample types, qualitative: snowball sampling

sampling method where initial participants refer other eligible individuals to the study, explaining the sample 

sample types, qualitative: convenience sampling

method where researchers select participants who are most readily available and convenient