Phil 101 Ethical Theories

Cultural Relativism

The belief that moral right and wrong depend on the customs and values of each culture.

Ethical Egoism

The idea that people should act in ways that best serve their own self-interest.

Plato’s Crito

A dialogue where Socrates argues that one must obey the law, even if it leads to personal harm, because justice and duty are more important than escape or comfort.

Hobbes: Social Contract Theory

The view that people give up some freedom to a governing authority in exchange for security and social order.

Bentham & Mill: Utilitarianism

The ethical theory that the best action is the one that produces the greatest happiness for the greatest number of people.

Kant: Duty Ethics

The belief that morality is based on following universal moral duties or rules, regardless of the outcome.

Aristotle: Virtue Ethics

The idea that moral behavior comes from developing good character traits and aiming for balance in actions.

Kohlberg: Stages of Moral Development

A theory describing how people’s moral reasoning develops through three levels—pre-conventional, conventional, and post-conventional—each with two stages that move from obedience to universal moral principles.

Intensity

How strong the pleasure or pain is.

Duration

How long the pleasure or pain lasts.

Certainty

How likely the pleasure or pain is to occur.

Proximity

How soon the pleasure or pain will occur.

Fruitfulness

Whether the action will lead to more pleasures (or pains) afterward.

Purity

Whether the pleasure is free from accompanying pain (or vice versa).

Extent

How many people are affected by the pleasure or pain.

Plato

Crito: Argued that one must obey the law and act justly, even if it leads to personal harm.

Hobbes

Social Contract Theory: Believed people give up some freedom to a ruler or government in exchange for safety and social order.

Bentham

Utilitarianism: Claimed that the best action is the one that creates the most happiness for the greatest number of people.

Mill

Utilitarianism: Expanded Bentham’s ideas by emphasizing quality of happiness, not just quantity.

Kant

Duty Ethics: Taught that morality is based on following universal moral laws out of duty, not on consequences.

Aristotle

Virtue Ethics: Focused on developing good character traits and living a balanced, virtuous life.

Kohlberg

Stages of Moral Development: Proposed that moral reasoning develops in stages, from obeying rules to following universal ethical principles.

Moral Development, Stage 1 (Pre-conventional)

Obedience and Punishment Orientation: Morality is based on avoiding punishment.

Moral Development, Stage 2 (Pre-conventional)

Individualism and Exchange: Right actions serve one’s own interests or involve fair exchange.

Moral Development, Stage 3 (Conventional)

Good Interpersonal Relationships: Morality means seeking approval and being seen as “good.”

Moral Development, Stage 4 (Conventional)

Maintaining Social Order: Right and wrong are defined by laws and authority to keep society stable.

Moral Development, Stage 5 (Post-conventional)

Social Contract and Individual Rights: Laws are important but can be changed to protect human rights and fairness.

Moral Development, Stage 6 (Post-conventional)

Universal Ethical Principles: Morality is guided by internal principles like justice and equality, even if they conflict with laws.

Crito (Plato) Central Question:

Is it ever right to disobey the law, even when the law is unjust?

Myth of Gyges (Plato) Central Question:

Would people still act morally if they could do anything without being caught or punished?

Retributive Justice

The idea that punishment should fit the crime, giving offenders what they deserve as a form of moral balance or fairness.

First Formulation of the Categorical Imperative

Act only according to rules that you would want everyone else to follow universally.

Second Formulation of the Categorical Imperative

Treat every person as an end in themselves, never just as a means to your own goals. (don't use people)

The two categories of virtue are:

Intellectual, Moral