Anatomy + Physiology Unit 1

Anatomy

Study of the structure of the human body + relationship to each other

Physiology

Study of the function of body parts

Gross anatomy

study of large, visible structures

System anatomy

study of organ systems

microscopic anatomy

structures too small to be seen with the naked eye

histology

microscopic study of tissues

principle of complementarity

structure = function

Structural organization

Chemical —> cellular —> tissue —> organ —> organ system —> organismal

chemical level

most basic level, begins with atoms —> molecules —> organelles

cellular level

single cell = smallest unit of living organism

tissue level

groups of similar cells that work together to perform a specific function

organ level

distinct structure of the body that contains two or more types of tissue

organ system

organs work closely together to perform a complex function

organismal level

all organ systems combined to make the whole organism

skeletal system (basic)

has joints and bones

protects and supports body organs + provides framework for muscles to move; store minerals

integumentary system (basic)

hair, skin, nails

forms external body covering + protects deeper tissues from injury; has cutaneous receptors, and sweat and oil glands

nervous system (basic)

brain, spinal cord, nerves

fast-acting control system - responds to internal/external changes by activating appropriate muscles + glands

muscular system (basic)

skeletal muscles

allows manipulation of the environment, locomotion, and facial expression; maintains posture and produces heat

cardiovascular system (basic)

heart and blood vessels

blood vessels transport blood, which carries oxygen, CO2, nutrients, wastes, etc; heart pumps blood

endocrine (basic)

has ovary, testis, pineal gland, pituitary gland, thyroid gland, thymus, adrenal gland, pancreas

glands secrete hormones that regulate processes such as growth, reproduction, and nutrient use by body cells

respiratory (basic)

nasal cavity, pharynx, larynx, trachea, lung, bronchus

keeps blood supplied with oxygen and removes CO2; exchanges occur through walls of the air sacs of the lungs

lymphatic system/immunity (basic)

red bone marrow, thymus, lymphatic vessels, thoracic duct; spleen lymph nodes

picks up fluid leaked from blood vessels and returns it to blood; disposes of debris; houses WBCs; mounts attack against foreign substances

urinary (basic)

kidney, ureter, urinary bladder; urethra

eliminates nitrogenous waste from body, regulates water, electrolyte, and acid-base balance of the blood

digestive system (basic)

oral cavity, esophagus, liver, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, rectum, anus

breaks down food into absorbable units that enter the blood; indigestible food eliminated as feces

Female reproductive (basic)

mammary glands, ovary, uterine tube, uterus, vagina

produce offspring; produce eggs and female sex hormones; sites for fertilization and development of fetus; produce milk

Male reproductive (basic)

prostate; penis; testis; scrotum; ductus deferens

produce offspring; produce sperm and male sex hormone; deliver sperm to female tract

homeostasis - dynamic equilibrium

maintenance of relatively stable internal conditions despite continuous changes in the environment

homeostasis 3 components

receptor, control center, effector

receptor

monitor environment; respond to stimuli

control center

determine point where variable is maintained; receive input from receptor; determine appropriate response

effector

receive output from control center; provide means of response; reduce stimulus or enhance stimulus

negative feedback

• most used

• variable changes in opposite direction of initial change

• ex: regulation of body temp, blood glucose

positive feedback

• enhance original stimulus

• amplify effect in the same direction as initial change

• controls infrequent events

• ex: labor, platelet plug formation

homeostatic imbalance

disturbance of homeostasis; increased risk of disease; less efficient as we age; if negative feedback systems are overwhelmed

standard anatomical position

body erect; feet slighty apart; palms facing forward with thumbs pointing away from body

superior vs inferior (cranial vs caudal)

toward head or toward feet

anterior vs posterior (ventral vs dorsal)

toward front (in front of) or back of body (behind)

medial vs lateral vs intermediate

toward midline (inner side of); away from midline (on outer side of); between more medial and lateral structure

proximal vs distal

closer to point of attachment/origin of part vs farther from point of attachment/origin of part

superficial vs deep (external vs internal)

toward/at body surface; away from body surface (more internal)

axial

head, neck, trunk

appendicular

limbs

regional terms for body areas

cephalic (head), cervical (neck), thoracic (chest), abdominal (middle), pubic (genital), upper limb (arm), manus (hand), lower limb (leg), pedal (foot), back

body planes

surfaces along which are cut for study

• sagittal

• frontal (coronal)

• transverse (horizontal)

sagittal plane

divide vertically into L and R

• midsagittal = cut is perfect on midline

• parasagittal = cut is off-centered

frontal (coronal) plane

divide vertically into anterior and posterior (front and back)

transverse (horizontal) plane

divide horizontally into superior and inferior (top and bottom)

oblique section

result of a cut at an angle other than 90 degrees to vertical plane

body cavities

closed to environment

• dorsal body cavity

  • cranial cavity (encases brain)

  • vertebral cavity (encases spinal cord)

• ventral body cavity

  • thoracic

  • abdominopelvic

abdominopelvic cavity

abdominal cavity

• stomach, intestines, spleen, liver

pelvic cavity

• urinary bladder, reproductive organs, rectum

thoracic cavity

two pleural cavities (each surrounds a lung)

mediastinum

• has pericardial cavity

• surrounds other thoracic organs

pericardial cavity

• encloses heart

serous membranes

serosa = thin double layered membranes that cover surfaces in ventral cavity

• parietal serosa = lines internal cavity walls

• visceral serosa = covers interal organs

double layers separated by slit-like cavity filled with serous fluid

fluid secreted by both layers

abdominopelvic quadrants

RUQ, LUQ, RLQ, LLQ (in terms of person, not viewer)

abdominopelvic regions

right hypochondriac, left hypochondriac, epigastric, right lumbar, umbilical, left lumbar, right iliac (inguinal), hypogastric/pubic, left iliac (inguinal)

other body cavities

oral, digestive, nasal, orbital, middle ear (all exposed to environment)

synovial (joint) (not exposed to environment)

eukaryote

has nucleus with nuclear envelope

subdivision of cell (3 parts)

Plasma membrane, cytoplasm, nucleus

plasma membrane

flexible, but sturdy barrier that surrounds + contains cell cytoplasm (semi-permeable)

2 types of membrane proteins

integral (transmembrane) (through whole membrane), peripheral (only on one side)

membrane permeability

membranes are fluid because of lipids; cholesterol makes them stable + rigid; selectively permeable (small, np can always go through, transmembrane proteins = channels for bigger, charged); macromolecules need vesicles

passive transport

does not require energy, move down gradient (simple diffusion, facilitated diffusion, osmosis)

active transport

energy required; move against concentration gradient (primary active transport + vesicular transport)

simple diffusion

solute moves from high to low conc

facilitated diffusion

proteins help solute that is big and charged move through lipid bilayer (channel-mediated - like a hallway + carrier mediated - like a gate)

osmosis

movement of solvent (water) through semipermeable membrane from high conc to low conc (water moves TOWARD higher solute conc)

tonicity

determined by solute that can’t cross the membrane

• isotonic - sol’n conc = cell conc; no net water movement

• hypertonic - sol’n conc > cell conc; water moves out of cell (shrivels - crenation)

• hypotonic - sol’n conc < cell conc; water moves into cell (cell swells - hemolysis)

primary active transport

energy from ATP hydrolysis changes the shape of the protein which pumps a substance across the membrane against its concentration gradient

endocytosis (vesicular)

internalize substances by forming a vesicle (engulf into cell)

types:

• phagocytosis: engulf solid particles

• pinocytosis: taking in extracellular fluid

ex: WBCs eating bacteria

exocytosis (vesicular)

membrane-enclosed secretory vesicles fuse with membrane and release contents extracellularly (ex: newly synthesized proteins packaged in golgi leave the cell)

transcytosis (vesicular)

combo of exo and endo cytosis; move substance in one side of cell, through cell, and out the other side

2 components of cytoplasm

cytosol (intracellular fluid portion of cytoplasm) + organelles

endoplasmic reticulum

• rough: protein synthesis + packaging

• smooth: lipid synthesis + calcium storage

golgi complex

packaging for export

mitochondria

cellular respiration + ATP synthesis

lysosomes

have digestive enzymes for breakdown of macromolecules (cell recycling)

ribosomes

translation of proteins (make proteins)

nucleus

contains genes (hereditary units): genes arranged along chromosomes

cell division

process by which cells reproduce themselves (interphase + mitosis)

interphase

G0: cells are not dividing (ex: neurons)

G1: cell is active; duplicate organelles

S: replicated DNA

G2: grow cell, make enyzmes/proteins

mitosis

nucleus of cell divides (somatic cells)

results in distribution of 2 sets of chromosomes in 2 separate nuclei

4 steps: prophase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase

prophase

chromatin condenses into chromosomes, nuclear membrane disappears, centrosomes move to opposite poles, chromosomes move to align

metaphase

centromeres of chromosomes (centers of them) line up at metaphase plate

anaphase

centromeres of chromosomes split + sister chromatids move toward opposite poles of the cell

telophase

chromosomes regain chromatin appearance, new nuclear membrane forms (separation into 2 nuclei, each with 46 chromosomes)

cytokinesis

cleavage furrow forms and cytoplasm splits

meiosis

division of reproductive cells that reduces chromosome number by half; 2 divisions

one cell creates 4 genetically identical haploid cells

Meiosis I and Meiosis II

Prophase I (M I)

chromosomes line up in center in tetrads, nuclear membrane dissolves, crossing over between nonsister chromatids

metaphase I (M I)

now crossed over chromatids line up at metaphase plate (pair homologous chromosomes)

anaphase I (M I)

cleavage furrow starts + chromosome pairs are separated to opp poles

telophase I (M I)

separation of nuclei, new nuclear envelopes form, results in 2 haploid daughter cells

Meiosis II

just like mitosis, just with half the number of chromosomes (dissolve nuclear envelope, align chromatids, pull to opp sides, make 4 diff cells)

tissues

groups of cells similar in structure that perform common/related functions

4 types of tissue

epithelial, connective, muscle, and nervous

epithelial tissue

sheet of cells covering body surfaces/cavities

2 main forms of epithelial

covering and lining (on surfaces - like skin); glandular (secretory in glands - like sweat/saliva)

main functions of epithelial

protection, absorption, filtration, excretion, secretion, and sensory reception

5 characteristics of epithelium

polarity (apical surface - exposed to surface/cavity/open to space; basal surface - lining the body)

specialized contact - cells arranged in sheets and densely packed; cell junctions present

supported by CT - epithelial cells attach to the basement membrane ALWAYS

Avascular, but innervated (no blood supply)

Regeneration - frequent mitosis

structure of epithelial

apical surface —> epithelium —> basal surface —> basement membrane —> CT

cancerous epithelial cells

prone to cancer because of exposure to environment

cancerous + invasive when they break through the basement membrane and invade underlying tissue (get into the bloodstream)

noninvasive at stage 0 (asymptomatic stage)

classification of epithelia

FIRST NAME:

simple epithelia - one layer

stratified epithelia - two or more layers and involved in protection

SECOND NAME:

squamous - flattened + scale-like

cuboidal - box-like, cube

columnar - tall, column-like