Midterm

The Philippine-America War (1899 - 1902)

• a conflict between the first Philippine Republic and the united state.

• After the Spanish-America War, Filipino revolutionaries clashed with the U.S. over sovereignty.

Outbreak of the War (February 4, 1899)

• began when an American solider shot a Filipino troops near Manila.

• war officially began when President William McKinley and the U.S. Senate ratifies the treaty of Paris, which transferred control of the Philippines from Spain to U.S.

• Emilio Aguinaldo viewed this as a betrayal of their independence, leading to armed resistance against American rule.

Battle of Manila (1899)

• lasted from February 4 to 5, 1899

• first major engagement of the war with the U.S. aiming secure control over Manila, defeated the outnumbered and less-equipped troops with superior firepower.

• The fall of Manila marked a turning point, causing Aguinaldo’s forces to retreat into the countryside and adopt guerrilla warfare tactics.

Aguinaldo’s Capture (1901)

• on march 23, 1901, General Frederick Funston captured Emilio Aguinaldo in Palanan, Isabela.

• funston and his troops, disguised as prisoners, infiltrated Aguinaldo’s hideout and captured him.

• Aguinaldo was brought to Manila, where he swore allegiance to the United states on April 1, 1901

• with aguinaldo’s capture Filipino resistance saw his surrender as a sign that the war was lost

End of War (1902)

• ended on July 4, 1902, when President Theodore Roosevelt declared victory and offered amnesty to Filipino insurgents who surrendered.

• despite this, some resistance, led by figures like Macario Sakay, Simeon Ola, and Miguel Malvar, continued until suppressed.

• the war caused heavy casualties with an 200,000 to 600,000 Filipino deaths due to combat, famine, and disease.

Emilio Aguinaldo (1869-1964)

• was the leader of the Philippine Revolution and the first President of the Philippine Republic.

• organized the resistance against U.S. forces, initially led the war effort, and declared Philippine independence on June 12, 1898

Antonio Luna (1866-1899)

• a skilled military strategist and general in the Filipino army.

• improved the organization and discipline of the Filipino forces by emphasizing the use of modern military tactics.

• role in several key battles, like the defense of Manila and Battle of Caloocan.

• instrumental in trying to unify the Filipino forces through his leadership was cut short when he was assassinated in 1899

Gregorio del Pilar (1875-1899)

• one of the youngest and most courageous Filipino generals.

• most remembered for his defense of Tirad Pass, where he made a heroic stand to delay U.S. forces and allow President Aguinaldo to escape.

President William McKinley (1843-1901)

• The U.S. President when the PHL-U.S. war began.

• decided to occupy the Philippine after the Spanish-American war

• his decision to maintain military occupation and eventually establish a civil government had a lasting impact on the nation’s colonial relationship with the U.S.

General Arthur MacArthur Jr. (1845-1912)

• commander of the U.S. forces

• helped secure American control with battles like Battle of Manila

General Frederick Funston (1865-1917)

• known for his successful capture of Emilio Aguinaldo in the 1901.

High Casualties and Suffering

• over 200k Filipino civilians died, primarily from disease and starvation.

U.S. Colonial Rule

• Philippines became a U.S. colony, with the American policies, paving the country’s education, infrastructure, and government

Rise of Filipino Nationalism

• fueled anti-colonial sentiment, paving the way for future independence movements

Education Reforms

• U.S. pushed for Americanization and introduced English-based instruction in schools with deployed American teachers (“Thomasites”)

• established a nationwide public education system

• period saw the establishment of the University of the Philippines

U.S. Imperialism

• marked a shift in U.S. foreign policy by expanding its imperial presence in the Pacific

Japanese Occupation and World war 2

• December 8, 1941, japan launched a suprise attack on the Philippines hours after bombing Pear harbor.

• occupation from 1942 to 1945

Fall of Bataan (April 9, 1942)

• Largest U.S. and Filipino surrender in history.

• defense delayed the Japanese advance in the pacific, giving the U.S. time to regroup and prepare for future operations

• after surrendering about 76k soldiers endured the brutal 65-mile Bataan death match, where thousands died from exhaustion, disease, and executions.

• the surrender exposed severe shortages of supplies, reinforcement, and medical assistance.

Japanese Control (1942-1944)

• established military rule with sever consequences.

• formed the Second Philippine Republic under President Jose P. laurel as a puppet government

• exploited the nation’s economy by utilizing resources, imposing forced labor, and controlling industries

• human rights were abused, including massacres, sexual slavery(comfort women), and brutal treatment

Guerilla Resistance

• The Hukbong Bayan Laban sa Hapon (Hukbalahap), a communist-led movement fought against the Japanese.

• many civilians supported this by providing food, shelter, and intelligence.

• Filipino and American _______ secretly sabotaged the Japanese supply lines, ambushed tropps, and gathered intelligence

Battle of Leyte Gulf (October 1944)

• battle was a turning point in the Pacific War and the largest naval battle in history, where general Douglas MacArthur fulfilled his promised to return marking the beginning of the liberation of the Philippines.

• also saw Japan’s first large-scale use of Kamikaze pilots

The Liberation of Manila (February 1945)

• the battle to recapture Manila was one of the most destructive urban battle of WWII

• around 100k Filipino civilians were killed many due to heavy bombardment and Japanese massacres.

• battle paved the way for the Japanese control to be over

Japanese Surrender (September 2, 1945)

• WWll officially ended with this nations surrender

• U.S. dropped atomic bombs on Hiroshima (August 6) and Nagasaki (August 9) causing this nation to surrender

• September 2, 1945 this nation formally surrendered aboard the USS missouri.

• Full Philippines independence was granted on July 4, 1946

Human Cost

• Over 1mil Filipino died from combat, massacres, forced labor, starvation, and disease.

• Imperial Army committed atrocities, including mass executions, torture, and sexual slavery (comfort woman).

• Bataan death march saw thousands of Filipino and American prisoners of war endure a brutal 65-mile march

• battle of manila in 1945 destroyed the city killing around 100k civilians

Social and Psychological Impact

• left psychological trauma among survivors and reshaped collective memory through experience of fear, displacement, and loss

• wartime experiences strengthened postwar nationalism, influenced Filipino attitudes toward foreign powers, and shaped narratives of resistance and resilience

Economic Devastation

• Cities, infrastructure, and industries were bombed, while agriculture and trade were disrupted, leading to food shortages and inflation.

• “Mickey Mouse Money” issued by the Japanese became worthless and foreign businesses shutdown, severely decaying economic recovery.

Political Changes

• The Japanese setup a puppet government, the Second Philippine Republic, under President Jose P. Laurel, which lacked legitimacy and faced reistance

Economic Devastation (Challenges in Reconstruction)

• destroyed industries, agriculture, and trade, leading to widespread poverty and unemployment

Infrastructure Damage (Challenges in Reconstruction)

• Cities, roads, bridges, and public buildings were in ruins, and required massive rebuilding efforts

Political instability (Challenges in Reconstruction)

• transition to independence created tensions, with various political factions competing for power

• presence of armed movements such as the Hukbalahap reflected unresolved social and economic grievances

War Reparations and Foreign Influence (Challenges in Reconstruction)

• PH had to negotiate financial aid and reparation from the United State while managing its new sovereignty,

• U.S. assistance was also shaped by Cold War concerns, as PH was considered a strategic ally in Southeast Asia

Social Displacement (Challenges in Reconstruction)

• many were left homeless, and returning war veterans needed reintegration into society

Economic Recovery Programs (Reconstruction Efforts)

• Philippine Rehabilitation Act of 1946 provided the U.S. financial aid to support the country;s rebuilding efforts after the WWII.

• Bell Trade Act established economic ties between the Philippines and the United states, but faced criticism for favoring American interest over newly independent nation.

• programs that were promoted, their benefits were uneven between urban and rural communities. imbalance contributed to persistent inequality and social discontent

Infrastructure Rebuilding (Reconstruction Efforts)

• Public works projects prioritized the restoration of roads, bridges, and government building to rebuild country’s infrastructure.

• Cities like manila, underwent massive reconstruction efforts to restore key areas and support economic recovery.

Political and Government Reforms (Reconstruction Efforts)

• 1946 elections resulted in the presidency of Manuel Roxas, who focused on stabilizing the government and addressing post-war challenges.

• 1947, the Parity Right Amendment was enacted, granting American citizens equal rights to exploit Philippine natural resources.

Social Programs and Rehabilitation (Reconstruction Efforts)

• Resettling displaced families and providing support for war veterans as the country recovered from WWII

• educational reforms were implemented to rebuild schools and improve literacy, ensuring future generations had access to quality education.

Sergio Osmeña Sr. (1878-1961)

• was president from 1944 to 1946

• worked on securing post-war aid from the U.S., advocated for financial assistance and reconstruction support to help the country recover.

Manuel Roxas (1892-1948)

• was the first president of the independent Republic of the Philippines, serving from 1946 to 1948

• led economic recovery and political stabilization by securing financial aid, implementing reconstruction programs, and laying the foundation for post-war governance.

Elpidio Quirino (1890-1956)

• served as the VP under Manuel Roxas, and later became president from 1948 to 1953

• continued economic and social recovery efforts by promoting industrialization, housing programs, and social welfare initiatives.

Martial law

• was presented as a temporary measure to restore order

• fundamentally altered the balance of power by concentrating authority in the executive branch

• weakened democratic institutions and normalized rule through decree rather than consent

Ferdinand Marcos Sr.

• president of the Philippines from 1865 to 1986

• placed Philippines under martial law

Reasons for martial law

• threats of communist insurgency, civil unrest, and rebellion.

• critics argue that Marcos used Martial law to extend his rule beyond the constitution limit and suppress political opposition

• officially lifted in 1981, authoritarian rule continued until his ouster in 1986

Proclamation of Martial Law

• Marcos signed Proclamation No. 1081 on September 21, 1972 declaring Martial law

• officially announced on Sept 23, 2971 through a televised address, by that time media outlets had already been shut down, and political arrests had begun

Censorship and Political Arrests

• Marcos shut down independent newspaper, radio, and television stations to control information.

• censorship ensured that only state-approved messages were broadcast.

• Opposition leaders, activist, and journalist, including Senator Benigno “Ninoy“ Aquino Jr. were arrested

• restricted public access to information and eliminated avenues for political accountability.

The 1973 Constitution and Marcos' Prolonged Rule

• A new constitution replaced the presidential system with a parliamentary one.

• effectively abolished the term limits allowing marcos to remain in power indefinitely, as he controlled the government and suppressed opposition.

Human Rights Violations

• marked by widespread extrajudicial killings, torture, forced disappearances, and illegal arrest.

• Reports from Amnesty International and human rights organizations estimate thousands of victims, including student activist, labor leaders, and journalist who opposed the regime.

Economic Decline and Corruption

• Marcos introduced the Kilusang Bagong Lipunan(New Society Movement) which aimed to promote discipline and nationalism.

• efforts were overshadowed by corruption, crony capitalism, and excessive foreign debt which led to economic decline, worsening poverty, and inflation.

• Concentration of wealth among marcos allies and cronies distorted economic development .

• Heavy borrowing to sustain the regime worsened the national debt and constrained future economic recovery

Assassination of Ninoy Aquino

• On august 21, 1983, Ninoy Aquino was ________ upon returning from exile at the Manila International Airport

• his death triggered mass protests and intensified opposition to Marcos

The 1986 Snap Elections and Electoral Fraud

• Marcos held a snap elections on February 7, 1986.

• Official COMELEC declared Marcos as the winner, bu tthe NAMFREL independent count showed Corazon Aquino leading,

• Accusations of electroal fraud led to nationwide protest s and increased pressure on Marcos

End of the Marcos Regime

• collapsed due to economic decline, human rights violations, and political turmoil.

• widespread corruption and mismanagement causing rising debt, inflation, and unemployement.

People Power Revolution of 1986

• demonstrated the role of the collective civic action in restoring democracy.