BIOL 2403 EXAM 1 STUDY

Chapter 1 - What is Anatomy?

Studies the form and structure of the body.

Chapter 1 - What is Microscopic anatomy? And what are its divisions?

Microscopic anatomy: Examines structures that are not visible to the naked eye.

Divisions:

- Cytology - the microscopic study of cells of cellular structures.

- Histology - the microscopic study of the anatomy of tissue.

Chapter 1 - What is Gross anatomy? And what are its divisions?

Investigates structures visible to the unaided eye - Also known as macroscopic anatomy.

Specimens dissected for examination.

Divisions:

- Systemic anatomy - studies the anatomy of each body system. Ex: Integumentary system, skeletal system, and muscular system.

- Regional anatomy - examines the structures in a body region.

- Comparative anatomy - examines anatomical similarities and differences in different species.

Chapter 1 - What is Physiology? And what are its subdivisions?

Physiologists examine the function of body structures, focusing on the molecular and cellular level.

Physiology subdisciplines:

- Cardiovascular physiology - function of the heart, of blood vessels, and of blood.

- Neurophysiology - function of all of the cells within the nervous system (neurons, glial cells, etc.).

- Respiratory physiology - function of respiration (the movement of gases in and out of our body).

- Pathophysiology - focuses on the function of a body system during disease or injury to the system.

Chapter 1 - What are the 6 characteristics common to all living things?

Organization, metabolism, growth and development, responsiveness, regulation, and reproduction.

Chapter 1 - What is Organization?

- All organisms exhibit some type of complex structure.

- Includes organ compartmentalization - All organized, packed into cavities that are protected by membranes, membranes that are protected by bones.

- Organization is present even at the cellular level!

Chapter 1 - What is Metabolism?

- The sum of all chemical reactions that occur in our body.

- Includes anabolism (in which we make larger structures), catabolism (in which we break down larger structures).

- Ex: Digestion.

Chapter 1 - What is Growth and development?

During an organism's lifetime, we assimilate material from the environment (Used to increase size as well as specialization as it related to our form and function).

Chapter 1 - What is Responsiveness?

- Ability to sense and react to stimuli (both externally and internally).

- CRITICAL for survival.

- EX: Cells responding to changes in nutritional availability.

- EX: Cells responding to a change in PH level in your blood.

- EX: Blood vessels responding to fluctuations in blood pressure (Blood pressure drops = blood vessels constrict.

Blood pressure too high = blood vessels dilate.)

Chapter 1 - What is Regulation?

- Ability to adjust.

- Ex: Homeostasis - self-regulating process by which an organism tends to maintain stability while adjusting to conditions that are best for its survival.

Chapter 1 - What is Reproduction?

- Produce new cells.

- Meiosis - makes distinct gametes (diploid to haploid).

- Mitosis - clones body cells (diploid to diploid).

- EX: Skin cells regenerate.

Chapter 1 - What are the 6 levels of organization in the human body?

Chemical level, cellular level, tissue, organ, organ system, organismal level.

Chapter 1 - What is the Chemical Level?

- Involves things like atoms, molecules, macromolecules, organelles, etc.

- Simplest level of organization in the human body.

Chapter 1 - What is the Cellular Level?

- IMPORTANT: Cells are the smallest living structures that serve as the basic units of structure and function in an organism.

- ****Smallest level capable of all those living functions that we talked about above.

- Consists of all the organelles. Responsible for gas exchange, making proteins, etc.

- Basic functions of life start at the cellular level.

Chapter 1 - What is tissue?

- A bunch of similar cells put together.

- Ex: Neural tissue - consists of several like cells, neurons coming together to form the tissues.

Chapter 1 - What is an Organ?

- Several different tissues put together.

- Ex: Heart - consists of connective tissue, smooth muscle, muscle, nerve endings, etc.

- Ex: Stomach - consists of skeletal muscle, smooth muscle, lymphatic tissue, nerve endings, etc.

Chapter 1 - What is an organ system?

- Several different organs put together.

- Ex: Digestive system - composed of the stomach, the gallbladder, the large intestine, the small intestine, the liver, etc.

Chapter 1 - What is the Organismal Level?

- Where all the organ systems work together and independently to coordinate activities, achieve a common bond, and drive functions.

- Ex: The human body.

Chapter 1 - What is the Anatomic Position? What characteristics are associated with it?

- It is a common reference position.

Characteristics of anatomic position:

- Upright stance.

- Feet parallel and flat on the floor.

- Upper limbs at the sides of the body.

- Palms face anteriorly (toward the front).

- Head is level.

- Eyes look forward.

Chapter 1 - What are Body Planes?

"Slices" of body called sections or planes.

Chapter 1 - What are sections? What are section examples and how do they "slice" the body?

- Section - actual cut or slice.

- Coronal section (frontal) - Splits the body into front (anterior) and back (posterior) portions.

- Transverse section (axial) - Splits the body into top (superior) and bottom (inferior) portions.

- Midsagittal section - Splits the body into left and right portions.

Chapter 1 - What are planes? What are section examples and how do they "slice" the body?

- Plane - imaginary flat surface.

- Coronal plane (frontal) - Splits the body into front (anterior) and back (posterior) portions.

- Transverse plane (axial) - Splits the body into top (superior) and bottom (inferior) portions.

- Midsagittal section - Splits the body into left and right portions.

Chapter 1 - What does Anterior mean?

Front of the body.

Chapter 1 - What does Posterior mean?

Behind the body.

Chapter 1 - What does Superior mean?

Above its reference point.

Chapter 1 - What does Inferior mean?

Below the reference point.

Chapter 1 - What does Medial mean?

Structures located along the midline of the body.

Chapter 1 - What does Lateral mean?

Structures located away from the midline of the body.

Chapter 1 - What does Proximal mean?

Closer to shoulder or hip.

Chapter 1 - What does Distal mean?

Further away from the shoulder or hip.

Chapter 1 - What are the two main regions of the human body?

Axial region and appendicular region.

Chapter 1 - What is the Axial region? And what are its subregions?

Head, neck, and trunk; forms the main vertical axis of the body.

Subregions: Cephalic, Cervical, Thoracic, Abdominal, Pelvic, and Back (dorsal).

Chapter 1 - What is the Cephalic region? And what main region is it a part of?

Anterior side: Frontal, orbital, nasal, oral, and mental regions; Posterior side: Otic and occipital regions.

It's part of the Axial region.

Chapter 1 - What is the Cervical region? And what main region is it a part of?

The region of the neck.

It's part of the Axial region.

Chapter 1 - What is the Thoracic region? And what main region is it a part of?

Anterior side: Sternal, axillary, and mammary regions.

It's part of the Axial region.

Chapter 1 - What is the Abdominal region? And what main region is it a part of?

Anterior side: Umbilical region.

It's part of the Axial region.

Chapter 1 - What is the Pelvic region? And what main region is it a part of?

Anterior side: Inguinal (groin) region.

It's part of the Axial region.

Chapter 1 - What is the Back (dorsal) region? And what main region is it a part of?

Posterior side: Scapular, vertebral, lumbar, sacral, gluteal, perineal regions.

It's part of the Axial region.

Chapter 1 - What is the Appendicular region?

Upper and lower limbs.

Chapter 1 - What is the Upper limb? And what main region is it a part of?

Includes acromial, brachial (arm), antecubital (elbow), olecranal, antebrachial (forearm), carpal (wrist) regions.

It is part of the Appendicular region.

Chapter 1 - What is the Manus (hand)? And what main region is it part of?

Anterior side: Palmar, pollex, and digital regions; Posterior side: Metacarpal and digital regions.

It is part of the Appendicular region.

Chapter 1 - What is the Lower limb? And what main region is it part of?

Anterior side: Coxal (hip), femoral (thigh), patellar, crural (leg), and fibular or peroneal regions; Posterior side: Femoral (thigh), popliteal, sural (calf), and fibular or peroneal regions.

It is part of the Appendicular region.

Chapter 1 - What is the Pedal (foot)? And what main region is it part of?

Anterior side: Tarsal (ankle), metatarsal, digital, and hallux region; Posterior side: Calcaneal and plantar regions.

It is part of the Appendicular region.

Chapter 1 - What are the components of homeostatic systems?

Three components: Stimulus, Receptor, Control center, Effector.

Chapter 1 - What is a Stimulus?

A change in the environment that is detected by the receptor.

Chapter 1 - What is a Receptor?

Detects the change in the environment.

Chapter 1 - What is a Control center?

Intercepts the change; can be the nervous system or endocrine response.

Chapter 1 - What is an Effector?

Brings about changes in response to the stimulus.

Chapter 1 - What is Negative feedback?

- Controls most processes in the body.

- Variable fluctuates within a normal range around a set point.

- Resulting action is in the opposite direction of the stimulus.

Chapter 1 - What is an example of negative feedback?

Temperature regulation.

Chapter 1 - What is Positive feedback?

- Occurs much less frequently than negative feedback.

- Stimulus is reinforced (same direction) to continue moving variable in same direction until a climactic event occurs, then body returns to homeostasis.

Chapter 1 - What are examples of positive feedback?

Breastfeeding, blood clotting, labor.

Chapter 1 - What is an example of homeostatic imbalance?

Diabetes: Occurs when homeostatic mechanisms for regulating blood glucose are not functioning normally.

Chapter 1 - What are the normal ranges for homeostatic variables?

Body temperature 98.6 degrees Fahrenheit, blood glucose 80-110 mg/dL, blood pressure 90-120 /60-80 mm Hg.

Chapter 2 - What is biochemistry?

The study of the molecules that compose living organisms.

Chapter 2 - Definition of major elements.

Elements that collectively compose more than 98% of body weight.

Chapter 2 - Definition of minor elements.

Elements that collectively compose less than 1% of body weight.

Chapter 2 - What is the Octet rule?

Atoms tend to lose, gain, or share electrons to complete the outer shell.

Chapter 2 - What is the Proton and Neutron number equal to?

Equal to the atomic number.

Chapter 2 - What is the electron number equal to?

Equal to the proton number.

Chapter 2 - What are Protons?

Positively charged particles located in the nucleus.

Chapter 2 - What are neutrons?

Particles with 0 charge located in the nucleus.

Chapter 2 - What are electrons?

Negatively charged particles located in the energy levels around the nucleus.

Chapter 2 - What is an Ionic bond?

A bond formed when ions of opposite charges attract each other.

Chapter 2 - What is a cation?

A particle that loses electron(s) resulting in a net positive charge.

Chapter 2 - What is an Anion?

A particle that gains electron(s) resulting in a net negative charge.

Chapter 2 - What kind of compound is Sodium Chloride (NaCl)? Which element gives up an electron / takes the electron?

An example of an ionic compound where sodium gives up an electron and chloride takes the electron.

Chapter 2 - What are electrolytes?

Ionic compounds that break apart into ions in solution.

Chapter 2 - What are Stable chemical compounds?

Stable associations between two or more elements combined in a fixed ratio.

Chapter 2 - What are ionic compounds?

Structures composed of ions held together in a lattice by ionic bonds.

Chapter 2 - What are covalent bonds?

Bonds formed by two or more atoms physically united by a chemical bond.

Chapter 2 - What are Energy levels?

Regions around the nucleus where electrons are located.

Chapter 2 - Innermost shell.

The first energy level that can hold 2 electrons.

Chapter 2 - Outermost shells.

Energy levels that typically want to hold 8 electrons for stability.

Chapter 2 - How many electrons does Calcium have in its outmost shell?

It has 2 electrons in its outermost shell and is likely to give away those 2 electrons.

Chapter 2 - What are CATIONS?

Positively charged ions such as Hydrogen ions (H^+), Sodium ions (Na^+), Potassium ions (K^+), Ammonium ions (NH4^+), Magnesium ions (Mg^2+), Calcium ions (Ca^2+), Iron (II) ions (Fe^2+), and Iron (III) ions (Fe^3+).

Chapter 2 - What are ANIONS?

Negatively charged ions such as Fluoride ions (F^-), Chloride ions (Cl^-), Iodine ions (I^-), Hydroxide ions (OH^-), Bicarbonate ions (HCO3^-), Oxide ions (O^2-), Sulfate ions (SO4^2-), and Phosphate ions (PO4^3-).

Chapter 2 - What is the most common extracellular cation?

Sodium.

Chapter 2 - What is the most common intracellular cation.

Potassium.

Chapter 2 - Electrolyte importance.

Includes chemical reactivity, osmotic effects, and electrical excitability of nerve and muscle.

Chapter 2 - What is the molecular formula?

Indicates number and type of atoms in a molecule, e.g., Carbonic acid (H2CO3) has 2 Hydrogen, 1 Carbon, and 3 Oxygen.

Chapter 2 - What is the structural formula?

Indicates number and type of atoms and their arrangement within the molecule.

Chapter 2 - What is covalent bond?

A bond where atoms share electrons, occurring when both atoms require electrons.

Chapter 2 - What is electronegativity?

The relative attraction of each atom for electrons, which can result in uneven sharing.

Chapter 2 - What is nonpolar covalent bonding?

Characterized by equal sharing of electrons, with the same charge on both nuclei.

Chapter 2 - What is polar covalent bonding?

Characterized by unequal sharing of electrons, where one atom has greater electronegativity.

Chapter 2 - What are the common elements in the human body?

Hydrogen (H), Oxygen (O), Nitrogen (N), and Carbon (C) are formed from covalent bonds.

Chapter 2 - What is a single covalent bond?

A bond formed by the sharing of one pair of electrons.

Chapter 2 - What is a double covalent bond?

A bond formed by the sharing of two pairs of electrons.

Chapter 2 - What is a triple covalent bond?

A bond formed by the sharing of three pairs of electrons.

Chapter 2 - What are ionic bonds?

Bonds formed through the electrostatic attraction between oppositely charged ions.

Chapter 2 - How much of the human body is made up of water?

Composes two-thirds of the human body by weight.

Chapter 2 - How is water a Polar molecule?

One oxygen atom bonded to two hydrogen atoms.

Chapter 2 - Oxygen atoms in water.

Has two partial negative charges.

Chapter 2 - Hydrogens in water.

Have a single partial positive charge.

Chapter 2 - Hydrogen bonds in water.

Can form four hydrogen bonds with adjacent molecules. Contributes to surface tension.

Chapter 2 - Water as the Universal Solvent.

Water is the solvent of the body.

Chapter 2 - What is a solvent?

A solvent is usually a liquid that dissolves one or more solutes (anything that breaks apart / dissolves in a liquid).

Chapter 2 - Why is water called a universal solvent?

Water is called a universal solvent because most substances dissolve in it.

Chapter 2 - What does Hydrophilic mean?

Means "water-loving".