ABORIGINAL STUDIES

Citizenship Rights

Entitlements enjoyed by a nation’s citizens, such as voting, residence, holding a passport and public-service employment; historically denied to many Indigenous peoples.

1948 Australian Citizenship Act

Law that first formalised Australian citizenship, including Aboriginal people born in or after 1948, though many rights were still withheld until the 1960s.

Land Rights (concept)

The struggle by Indigenous peoples to reclaim traditional ownership of land, usually based on occupation prior to colonisation.

Land Rights (legislation)

Statutes that compensate for dispossession by returning land and associated rights to Indigenous peoples.

Sovereignty

Legal authority over land and the right of self-governance; never ceded by Aboriginal peoples of Australia.

Treaty Rights

Specific rights reserved by Indigenous groups when treaties were signed with settler states (e.g., hunting, fishing, land).

Treaty of Waitangi (1840)

New Zealand’s founding treaty between Māori chiefs and the Crown; differing texts led to disputes over sovereignty.

Social Justice

Fair, impartial application of laws so all people are treated equally without prejudice.

Human Rights

Universal, inherent and inalienable rights of every person, articulated in documents like the UDHR.

Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) 1948

Non-binding UN declaration containing 30 articles that set global human-rights standards after WWII.

Australian Human Rights Commission (AHRC)

Independent statutory body (1986) that promotes and protects human rights in Australia.

International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR)

1966 UN treaty (binding) guaranteeing rights such as life, expression and fair trial; Australia ratified 1980.

International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (ICESCR)

1966 UN treaty covering work, health, education and cultural life; part of the International Bill of Rights.

International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination (CERD)

1965 legally binding treaty to eradicate racial discrimination; Australia ratified 1975.

Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination

UN body of experts monitoring state compliance with CERD through periodic reports.

United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples (UNDRIP) 2007

Non-binding declaration outlining Indigenous rights to self-determination, land, culture and language; Australia endorsed 2009.

Socioeconomic Status (SES)

Measure of economic and social position based on work, income, education and related indicators.

SES Indicators

Criminal justice, health, employment, education, economic independence and housing metrics used to gauge social position.

Assimilation Policy

Government approach aiming to absorb Indigenous peoples into settler society, often through child removal and cultural suppression.

Stolen Generations

Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander children forcibly removed from families under assimilation policies (c.1910-70s).

Closing the Gap (2008)

Australian framework setting quantitative targets to reduce Indigenous disadvantage in health, education, employment and life expectancy.

Closing the Gap (2021)

Updated partnership approach with Coalition of Peaks; 17 socio-economic targets monitored annually.

Royal Commission into Aboriginal Deaths in Custody (1987-1991)

Inquiry that produced 339 recommendations to reduce Indigenous incarceration and prevent deaths.

Native Title Act 1993 (Cth)

Legislation recognising Indigenous land rights following Mabo; sets procedures for claiming native title.

Yirrkala Bark Petitions 1963

First traditional-style petition tabled in federal parliament, asserting Yolngu land rights against bauxite mining.

Wave Hill Walk-Off 1966

Gurindji workers’ strike over wages and land that catalysed national land-rights movement.

Aboriginal Tent Embassy (1972-)

Permanent protest site on Canberra’s Parliament lawns symbolising land rights and self-determination.

Northern Territory Aboriginal Land Rights Act 1976

First Australian law to grant freehold title and land councils to NT Traditional Owners.

Freedom Rides 1965 (Australia)

SAFA bus tour exposing rural segregation; boosted 1967 referendum campaign.

1967 Referendum

Australian vote removing discriminatory constitutional clauses and enabling federal law-making for Aboriginal people.

Racial Discrimination Act 1975 (Cth)

Australia’s first national anti-racism law, enacted after ratifying CERD; prohibits race-based discrimination.

Overt Racism

Explicit, direct acts of racial discrimination or abuse.

Covert Racism

Indirect or hidden practices that disadvantage racial groups despite appearing neutral.

Prejudice

Pre-judging individuals or groups on racial grounds, often leading to discrimination.

Stereotype

Fixed, oversimplified belief about a group (e.g., racial or gender).

Institutional (Systemic) Racism

Policies or practices within institutions that produce unequal outcomes for certain races, often unintentionally.

Micro-aggression

Brief, subtle insult or action that conveys derogatory or negative messages toward minorities.

Building a Foundation for Change (Canada)

Canada’s federal Anti-Racism Strategy 2019-2022 (extended to 2028) focusing on leadership, empowerment and awareness.

Give Nothing to Racism Campaign

NZ Human Rights Commission media initiative (2020) using videos to expose casual racism.

Racism No Way!

Australian school-based program (launched 2000) promoting anti-racism education and safe learning environments.

National Anti-Racism Strategy – ‘Racism. It Stops With Me’

AHRC campaign (2012-) providing tools for individuals/organisations to identify and act against racism.

Northern Territory Emergency Response (2007)

Federal intervention addressing child abuse in NT; partially suspended the RDA and criticised by CERD.

Little Children are Sacred Report 2007

Inquiry into child sexual abuse in NT Aboriginal communities; prompted the NT Intervention.

Country (Aboriginal sense)

Spiritual and custodial relationship with land, sea, sky and Dreaming places.

Dispossession

Forcible removal of Indigenous peoples from land, disrupting culture and economy.

Freehold Title

Absolute land ownership allowing leases, mortgages and transfer without time limit.

Lease

Contract granting temporary right to use property for specified period and purpose.

Kinship (Aboriginal)

System of relationships linking people, land and spiritual responsibilities within Aboriginal culture.

Pastoral Lease

Crown land rented for grazing livestock; pivotal in native-title coexistence debates (Wik).

Customary Law

Traditional laws and practices governing Indigenous communities, usually overseen by Elders.

Native Title (legal meaning)

Recognition that Indigenous groups hold traditional rights to land/water where connection is maintained and not extinguished.

Mabo Decision 1992

High Court ruling overturning terra nullius and confirming native title for Meriam people.

Wik Decision 1996

High Court ruling that native title can coexist with pastoral leases unless inconsistent.

Native Title Amendment Act 1998

‘Ten Point Plan’ legislation restricting native title following Wik; introduced tougher registration tests.

Blue Mud Bay Case 2008

High Court decision granting NT Traditional Owners exclusive rights to intertidal zones.

Socioeconomic Inequality

Unequal distribution of resources and opportunities leading to SES differences among populations.

Indicators of Indigenous SES (examples)

Unemployment, education completion, preschool attendance, imprisonment, health outcomes, housing quality.

Closing the Gap Targets

Specific benchmarks (e.g., life expectancy, child mortality, employment) measured annually to gauge progress.

Indian Health Service (IHS) 1955

US federal agency providing healthcare to American Indians/Alaska Natives based on treaty obligations.

National Aboriginal Community Controlled Health Organisation (NACCHO)

Peak body (est. 1974) representing 150+ Aboriginal health services delivering holistic, community-controlled care.

Aboriginal Community Controlled Health Organisation (ACCHO)

Local, autonomous Indigenous clinic offering culturally safe, comprehensive healthcare.

Porcupine Clinic (Pine Ridge)

Community-run Oglala Lakota health facility (1992) integrating culture and preventive services despite under-funding.

Circle Sentencing

Restorative justice process where Elders, victims and offenders jointly decide culturally appropriate sentences.

Justice Reinvestment

Strategy redirecting funds from incarceration into community programs addressing root causes of crime.

Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA)

US agency (1824) managing services, land and governance support for federally recognised tribes.

Tribal Strategies Against Violence (TSAV)

US program (1995) helping Native communities implement culturally based crime-prevention initiatives.

American Indian Movement (AIM)

Indigenous activist organisation (founded 1968) opposing systemic racism, police brutality and treaty violations.

Miyay Birray Youth Service

Moree (NSW) Aboriginal youth organisation (1993) offering programs like Street Beat to reduce crime.

Street Beat (Moree)

Community night patrol transporting at-risk youth to safe spaces, fostering trust with police.

Aboriginal Legal Service

Organisation providing culturally appropriate legal representation and advocacy for Aboriginal people.

Moree Youth Crime Governance Group

2024 partnership between NSW Government and community to coordinate youth-crime reduction and support.

Royal Commission into Aboriginal Deaths in Custody Recommendation 339

Call for imprisonment only as a last resort; emblematic of broader systemic-reform recommendations.

Yirrkala Select Committee

Parliamentary body formed after 1963 petitions to examine Yolngu grievances and mining impacts.

Building Awareness & Changing Attitudes (Canada Strategy)

Pillar of Canada’s anti-racism plan focused on educating about historical and current discrimination.

Give Nothing to Racism – Micro-Aggressions

NZ campaign emphasising that subtle racist acts are harmful and should be challenged.

Tackling Indigenous Smoking Program

Australian Closing the Gap initiative reducing tobacco use through culturally tailored interventions.

Aboriginal Maternal and Infant Health Services

Community-led program improving birth outcomes via culturally safe antenatal care and education.

Healthy Weight for Life (IHS)

US initiative promoting healthy lifestyles to combat obesity in Native communities.

Uluru Statement from the Heart 2017

Invitation seeking constitutional Voice, Treaty and Truth for First Nations Australians.

Makarrata Commission

Proposed body to oversee treaty-making and truth-telling between Australian governments and Indigenous peoples.

Aboriginal Land Council (NT/NSW)

Elected body managing land claims, permits and benefits under respective land-rights acts.

Land Grab (1820s)

Early colonial granting of land to settlers and soldiers, disregarding Indigenous occupation.

Discrimination

Unfair treatment of individuals based on race, colour, ethnicity or other attributes.

Harassment

Ongoing targeted behaviour creating an unsafe or hostile environment for an individual or group.

Racial Vilification Act (various states)

State laws (e.g., SA 1996) prohibiting public acts that incite hatred or contempt on racial grounds.

Northern Territory Intervention – Welfare Quarantining

Policy withholding 50 % of payments, linking them to schooling and restricting alcohol/pornography in designated areas.

Freedom to Life (UDHR Article 3)

Basic right to life, liberty and personal security enshrined in the UDHR.

Equality Before the Law (UDHR Article 7)

Guarantee that all people receive equal legal protection without discrimination.

Customary vs Western Law Clash

Conflict arising when Indigenous traditional laws differ from imposed colonial legal systems.

Self-Determination

Right of peoples to freely determine political status and pursue economic, social and cultural development.

Restorative Justice

Approach focusing on repairing harm to victims and community rather than punitive measures.

Circle Sentencing Eligibility

Participation requires offender’s guilty plea and is limited to certain offences within community.

‘Ten Point Plan’

Howard Government’s 1998 framework limiting native-title rights after the Wik decision.

Aboriginal Flag (1971)

Black-red-yellow flag by Harold Thomas symbolising Aboriginal identity; proclaimed official flag in 1995.

Bark Petition

Document combining traditional bark painting with typed appeal, first used in Yirrkala (1963) to assert land rights.