Western Heritage Exam 2

Challenges after Punic Wars:

Rome faced economic inequality, land redistribution conflicts, and social unrest due to wealth concentration among elites and displacement of small farmers.

Julius Caesar’s Assassination:

He was killed by senators fearing his growing power and potential monarchy, threatening the Republic.

Battle of Actium (31 BCE):

Naval clash where Octavian defeated Marc Antony and Cleopatra, leading to Octavian’s sole rule.

Caesar Augustus & Pax Romana:

Augustus ushered in a 200-year peace, patronized the people through grain distribution, public works, and cultural revival.

Princeps:

Meaning “first citizen,” Augustus used this title to maintain the illusion of republican governance while holding imperial power.

Roman Engineering & Law:

Innovations like aqueducts, roads, and concrete improved infrastructure; Roman law emphasized justice, property rights, and citizenship.

Caligula:

Known for erratic behavior and cruelty; assassinated by his own guards.

Nero & Great Fire (64 CE):

Accused of starting the fire to rebuild Rome; persecuted Christians as scapegoats.

Five Good Emperors:

Nerva, Trajan, Hadrian, Antoninus Pius, Marcus Aurelius—known for stability, expansion, and legal reform.

Pharisees:

Jewish sect focused on law, tradition, and resurrection.

Zealots:

Radical Jews who resisted Roman rule, often violently.

Jesus of Nazareth:

Preached love, forgiveness, and the Kingdom of God; crucified under Roman authority.

Paul of Tarsus:

Spread Christianity to Gentiles, shaped Christian theology (grace, salvation, resurrection).

Roman Views of Christianity:

Initially suspicious; Christians were persecuted for refusing emperor worship.

Martyr:

Someone who dies for their faith, often seen as a witness to religious truth.

Third Century Crisis:

Marked by civil wars, economic collapse, and invasions.

Diocletian’s Reforms:

Split empire, fixed prices, and increased bureaucracy.

Tetrarchy:

Rule by four emperors to stabilize succession and governance.

Constantine:

Battle of Milvian Bridge (312):

Converted to Christianity after a vision.

Edict of Milan (313):

Legalized Christianity.

Council of Nicaea (325):

Defined Christian orthodoxy (e.g., divinity of Christ).

Emperor Theodosius:

Made Christianity the official religion of the empire.

Heresy:

Gnosticism:

Belief in secret spiritual knowledge.

Arianism:

Denied Christ’s full divinity.

Fall of Rome Causes:

Invasions, economic decline, weak leadership, and internal strife.

Visigoths:

Sacked Rome in 410 CE; key players in Western collapse.

476 C.E.:

Traditional date for the fall of the Western Roman Empire.

Byzantine Empire:

Eastern Roman continuation centered in Constantinople, preserving Roman law and Christian culture.

Justinian:

Codified Roman law (Corpus Juris Civilis) built Hagia Sophia, reconquered parts of the West.

Muhammad:

Prophet of Islam; received revelations forming the Quran.

People of the Book:

Jews and Christians were respected but taxed under Islamic rule.

Jihad:

Struggle in God’s cause; can be spiritual or military.

Islam’s Impact on Europe:

Preserved classical knowledge, influenced science, medicine, and philosophy.

Dark Ages:

Post-Roman period marked by decline in literacy, trade, and central authority.

Charlemagne:

United in much of Western Europe, revived learning (Carolingian Renaissance).

Feudalism:

Lords gave land to vassals in exchange for military service.

Manorialism:

Lords provided protection; serfs worked on the land.

Serfs:

Bound to land, owed labor and dues to lords.

Great Schism (1054):

Split between Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox churches.

First Crusade (1096):

Goal to reclaim Jerusalem from Muslims.

Investiture Controversy:

Conflict over who appoints bishops—pope or king.

Henry II:

Introduced scutage (money for military service), jury trials, and common law.

Thomas Becket:

Archbishop murdered over church-state tensions.

Magna Carta (1215):

Limited royal power; affirmed legal rights.

Parliament:

Evolved from royal councils into a legislative body.

Black Death (1347–1351):

Origins: Likely from Asia via trade routes.

Effects: Religious doubt, labor shortages, peasant revolts, and decline of feudalism.