AP Psychology - Learning Review Guide

Learning

a relatively permanent change in an organism's behavior due to experience.

Behaviorism

the view that psychology (1) should be an objective science that (2) studies behavior without reference to mental processes. Most research psychologists today agree with (1) but not with (2).

Associative Learning

learning the two events (2 stimuli in the case of classical conditioning or a response and its consequence in operant conditioning) occur together.

Classical Conditioning

a type of learning in which an organism comes to associate two stimuli. A neutral stimulus and unconditioned stimulus (UCS) begins to produce a response that anticipates and prepares for the unconditioned stimulus.

Unconditioned Stimulus (USC)

in classical conditioning, a stimulus that unconditionally--naturally and automatically--triggers an unconditioned response (UCR).

Unconditioned Response (UCR)

in classical conditioning, the unlearned, naturally occurring response to the unconditioned stimulus (UCS), such as salivation when presented with food.

Conditioned Stimulus (CS)

in classical conditioning, an originally irrelevant or Neutral Stimulus (NS) that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus (UCS), comes to elicit a conditioned response (CR).

Conditioned Response (CR)

in classical conditioning, the learned response to a previously neutral conditioned stimulus (CS).

Acquisition

the initial stage in classical conditioning. The phase associating a neutral stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus becomes a conditioned stimulus and elicits a conditioned response.

Extinction

the diminishing of a conditioned response. It occurs in classical conditioning when the UCS stops being paired with the CS (e.g., the bell is presented without being followed by the food).

Spontaneous Recovery

the reappearance, after a rest period, of an extinguished conditioned response.

Generalization

the tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit similar responses.

Discrimination

the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus (e.g., bell) and other stimuli that do not signal an unconditioned stimulus (e.g., telephone ringing).

Biological Predispositions

the understanding that an animal's capacity for conditioning is constrained by its biology (e.g., it is much easier to condition a rat to avoid certain tastes than certain sounds because rats use taste naturally to determine if food is "good").

Little Albert

young child who was conditioned to fear rats after a rat was paired with terribly loud noise. John B. Watson carried out this study and is considered to be the "father of behaviorism".

Operant Conditioning

a type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforcer (positive or negative) and weakened if followed by a punisher.

Respondent Behavior

behavior that occurs as an automatic response to some stimulus; Skinner's term for behavior learned through classical conditioning.

Operant Behavior

Skinner's term for behavior that operates on (affects) the environment, producing consequences.

Law of Effect

Thorndike's principle that behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely, and that behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely.

Operant Chamber (Skinner Box)

a chamber containing a "bar" that an animal can manipulate to receive a food or water reinforcer, with associated devices to record the animal's rate of bar pressing.

Shaping

an operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior.

Reinforcer

in operant conditioning, any event (consequence) that strengthens the behavior it follows.

Positive Reinforcer

a typically pleasurable stimulus that follows a response (e.g., getting a hug). It strengthens and increases the response.

Negative Reinforcer

an aversive stimulus that is removed following a response (e.g., the buzzer stopping once you fasten your seatbelt). It strengthens and increases the response. It is NOT the same thing as punishment.

Primary Reinforcer

an innately reinforcing stimulus, such as one that satisfies a biological need (e.g., food or water).

Secondary (or Conditioned) Reinforcer

a stimulus that gains it reinforcing power through its association with a primary reinforcer (e.g., money).

Continuous Reinforcement

reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs.

Partial Reinforcement

reinforcing a response only part of the time. This results in slower acquisition of a response but with much greater to resistance to extinction than a continuous schedule of reinforcement.

Fixed-ratio

reinforcement of a response only after a specific number of responses have occurred.

Variable-ratio

reinforcement of a response after an unpredictable number of responses have occurred.

Fixed-Interval

reinforcement of a response after a specific amount of time has elapsed.

Variable-Interval

reinforcement of a response after an unpredictable amount of time has elapsed.

Punishment

an event that decreases the behavior it follows.

Positive Punishment

following a response with an aversive stimulus, thus weakening the response (e.g., spanking a child).

Negative Punishment

following a response with the removal of a pleasant stimulus, thus weakening the response (e.g., taking away TV privileges).

Problems with Punishment

(1) it is only temporary; (2) it doesn't teach the correct behavior; (3) it can create aggressive behavior in the organism being conditioned and: (4) the organism may become classically conditioned to fear the punisher (through the association of pain (UCS) with the punisher (CS)).

Cognitive Map

a mental representation of the layout of one's environment.

Latent Learning

learning that occurs, but is not apparent, until there is an incentive to demonstrate it

Overjustification Effect

the effect of promising a reward for doing what one already likes to do. The person may now see the reward, rather than intrinsic interest, as the motivation performing the task….and thus, lose interest.

Intrinsic Motivation

Doing something for the joy of doing it, internal reasons

Extrinsic Motivation

Doing something for an external reward, such as money or grades

Observational Learning

learning by observing the behavior of others (e.g., Bandura's experiments with the children and the Bo-Bo Dolls)

Modeling

the process of observing and imitating a specific behavior. (While children clearly learn to ___ antisocial behavior they see in the media, they can also learn to ___ prosocial behavior).

Prosocial Behavior

positive, constructive, helpful behavior. The opposite of antisocial behavior.