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Single displacement when A is a metal
A + BC - AC + B
Single displacement when A is a non-metal
A + BC - BA + C
Double displacement
AB + CD --> AD + CB
Neutralization
Acid + Base - Ionic salt + Water
(aq) (aq) (s) (L)
Digestive + Excretory
Interaction: Eliminates undigested food and waste products.
Structures Involved: Large intestine, rectum, anus.
Function for Body: Removes solid waste (feces), reabsorbs water, and prevents toxin buildup.
Circulatory + Respiratory
Interaction: Gas exchange—oxygen enters blood; carbon dioxide is removed.
Structures Involved: Alveoli in lungs, pulmonary capillaries, red blood cells.
Function for Body: Delivers oxygen to cells and removes waste gases like CO₂.
Circulatory + Immune
Interaction: Transports immune cells and antibodies to infection sites.
Structures Involved: White blood cells, lymph nodes, lymph vessels, spleen.
Function for Body: Helps detect and destroy pathogens and infections throughout the body.
Circulatory + Excretory
Interaction: Filters and transports waste products for removal.
Structures Involved: Kidneys, renal arteries and veins.
Function for Body: Cleans blood, maintains pH and ion balance, removes urea and other wastes.
Circulatory + Endocrine
Interaction: Hormones are transported via blood to target organs.
Structures Involved: Blood plasma, capillaries, glands (e.g., pituitary, thyroid).
Function for Body: Coordinates long-term body processes like growth, metabolism, and reproduction.
Excretory + Digestive
Interaction: Expels solid waste not absorbed by the digestive system.
Structures Involved: Large intestine, rectum, anus.
Function for Body: Eliminates undigested materials and reabsorbs water into bloodstream.
Light from heat
Examples: light bulbs, stovetops, fireworks.
Electricity through a gas
Examples: neon lights, lightning, aurora borealis.
UV from mercury gas excites phosphor
Example: fluorescent light bulbs.
Phosphorescence
Like fluorescence but continues glowing after source is removed
Example: glow-in-the-dark stickers.
Chemiluminescence
Chemical reaction with little/no heat
Example: glow sticks.
Bioluminescence
Living organisms produce light chemically
Example: fireflies, jellyfish.
Triboluminescence
Light from friction
Example: biting Lifesavers, rubbing crystals.
EM Spectrum (low to high energy):
Radio → Microwaves → Infrared → Visible Light (ROYGBIV) → UV → X-rays → Gamma
Plane Mirror Image Characteristics (SALT):
Size: Same
Attitude: Upright, laterally inverted
Location: Same distance from mirror
Type: Virtual
Mirror Equations:
1/f = 1/do + 1/di
f: The focal length of the mirror, which is half the radius of curvature.
do: The distance of the object from the mirror.
di: The distance of the image from the mirror.
Snell's Law
concave mirrors
convex mirrors
Parts of the Eye:
Cornea: First refracts light (converging)
Pupil: Light entrance, adjusts to light
Lens: Focuses light using ciliary muscles
Retina: Contains rods (light) & cones (color)
Optic Nerve: Sends image to brain
Image on retina: Real, inverted, smaller
Myopia (Nearsightedness)
Image in front of retina
Corrected with diverging lenses
Hyperopia (Farsightedness):
image behind retina
Corrected with converging lenses
Astigmatism
Irregular cornea
Blurred vision
Corrected with glasses/laser
Presbyopia
Age-related stiff lens
Trouble focusing near
Corrected with reading glasses/bifocals
Weather
Atmospheric conditions at a specific place and time (e.g., Monday's low in Oakville was 4°C).
Climate
Long-term average weather patterns in a region (at least 30 years).
Example: Victoria, BC has the warmest winters in Canada — that's climate.
Radiation
Transfer of energy via electromagnetic waves (sunlight).
Conduction
Direct transfer through contact (e.g., heat moving from land surface to air).
Convection
Movement of fluids (like air or water) transferring heat. Hot rises, cool sinks, creating circulation currents.
Natural Factors Affecting Climate
solar Radiation: Varies with Earth's orbit, sunspots, tilt, and curvature.
Atmosphere: Absorbs/traps heat, reflects radiation.
Hydrosphere: Oceans store and distribute heat; act as carbon sinks.
Landforms (Lithosphere): Mountains affect air flow and precipitation. Volcanoes release ash (high albedo) and GHGs.
Albedo: Light surfaces reflect more sunlight. Less ice = lower albedo = more heat absorption.
Albedo
Light surfaces reflect more sunlight. Less ice = lower albedo = more heat absorption.
Natural Greenhouse Effect
Earth absorbs solar radiation and re-emits it as heat (infrared radiation).
Greenhouse gases (GHGs) in atmosphere (water vapour, CO₂, CH₄, etc.) absorb some of this heat, trapping it.
Keeps Earth warm enough to support life (unlike Mercury or Venus extremes).
Anthropogenic Greenhouse Effect
Human activities (burning fossil fuels, deforestation) increase GHG levels (especially CO₂, CH₄, N₂O, halocarbons).
Enhanced heat trapping disrupts Earth's energy balance → global warming.
Key sources: Cars, industry, agriculture, CFCs (from old refrigerants).
Ozone Depletion
Occurs in the stratosphere, where natural ozone protects against UV radiation.
Caused by CFCs (chlorofluorocarbons) from aerosol sprays, coolants.
Results in ozone holes (esp. over poles); increases UV exposure on Earth.
Recovery is slow, despite CFC bans.
CFCs
(chlorofluorocarbons) from aerosol sprays, coolants.
Evidence for Climate Change
Temperature records since 1800s show rising global temps.
CO₂ monitoring since 1950s shows a steep increase.
Ice Core Data: Air bubbles show GHG levels & temperature changes over 800,000 years.
Dendroclimatology: Tree ring width shows climate conditions (wider = warmer/wetter).
Sedimentary Rock Analysis: Carbon isotopes indicate historical climate patterns.
Positive Feedback loop
Amplifies warming (e.g., melting ice → lower albedo → more heat absorption).
Negative Feedback loop
Diminishes warming (e.g., more CO₂ → more plant growth → more CO₂ absorbed).
Impact of Climate on Nature
Alters biomes (deserts, forests, tundra).
Affects precipitation patterns and extreme weather frequency (floods, droughts, hurricanes).
Changes species distributions, habitats, migration, and ecosystems.
Evidence & Data to Support Climate Change Initiatives
Ice cores, tree rings, and temperature/CO₂ records provide scientific evidence of past and present trends.
Data helps justify international agreements, GHG limits, and sustainability projects.