Studied by 2 people
Looks like no one added any tags here yet for you.
Māori Use of Psychoactive Substances
Before European arrival, Māori used psychoactive substances like Kawakawa and Pukatea primarily for medicinal purposes, not recreation.
Kawakawa, Pukatea, & Radula Marginata
The psychoactive substances that Māori used as medicines before the arrival of Europeans
date of introduction of Alcohol and Tobacco in Aotearoa
Europeans introduced alcohol and tobacco to New Zealand in the late 1700s
Maori Women’s tabacco use
while frowned upon by European women, Maori women began to use tobacco extensively in early 1800’s
The Maori Councils act 1900
let Maori councils prohibit the use of tobacco by children and to fine suppliers as they could see the harm it brought to their communities
smoking habits of Maori in the 1900s
Although the harms were recognized, the drug was already well established in the Māori communities
Smoking Rates 1962 in Maori
smoking rates were significantly higher among Māori (58% men, 70% women)
smoking rates 1963 in general NZ population
compared to the general population (38% men, 31% women).
Alcohol's Integration
Alcohol, initially not preferred by Māori, became integrated into their culture by the 1850s, leading to significant social problems recognized by early Māori doctors.
Waipiro
stinking water (alcohol described by early Maori)
dry areas
established areas where alcohol could not be consumed
Maori and non-Maori drinking patterns
maori consumed twice as much but drunk less frequently
Maori mortality and alcohol consumption
Maori are 2x as likley to suffer sever alcohol related problems and 4x as likeley to die of a condition caused or made worse by alcohol
opium smoking in 1860’s NZ
brought to NZ by Chinese miners
what were cannabis cigarettes advertised as in the 19th century?
a cure to asthma and insomnia
what drug control measures were taken in NZ?
New Zealand implemented various drug control measures from 1866 to 1965:
Sales of Poison Act 1866 (label opium as poison)
1871 registration of opium (required registration of vendors)
Opium Prohibition Act of 1901 (prohibited smoking and importation)
Quackery Prevention Act 1908 (restrict patent medicines)
Dangerous Drugs Act of 1927 (imported but had to be licensed)
Misuse of Drugs Act 1975
what was heroin usage in NZ like (1940s)?
NZ had some of the worlds highest heroin use rates due to use of prescriptions.
Cannabis use in NZ
The 1960s saw a rise in cannabis use in New Zealand, influenced by cultural movements, with the country having one of the highest rates of cannabis use globally.
Misuse of Drugs Act 1975
This act aimed to align New Zealand's drug policies with international standards, establishing schedules for drugs based on their potential harm.
Classifications of Drugs
Drugs are classified into three classes (A, B, C) based on their risk of harm, with Class A being the most dangerous and illegal.
Class A drugs
LSD
heroin
cocaine
methamphetamine
Psilocin & psilocybin
Class B drugs
cannabis (oil)
morphine
amphetamine
MDMA
Class C drugs
Cannabis (plant/leaf/fruit/seed)
barbiturates
benzodiazepines
issues with the legislations for these drugs in each class?
alcohol is considered a class A drug but is not shown in this act, and the information is not evidence based for example LSD and Psilocin are some of the least harmful drugs known to man but they are considered class A drugs.
substance use burden in NZ
Substance use is a leading cause of disease burden in New Zealand, with significant economic costs associated with drug-related issues.
what is a drug?
a medicine or other substance which has a physiological effect when ingested or otherwise introduced to the body
DALY
a measure of overall disease burden, expressed as the cumulative number of years lost due to ill health, disability, or early death
amount spent on drug related costs per year
1.8 billion, 350 million on drug laws. mostly goes to criminal costs rather than rehabilitation.
does alcohol do more harm to self or to others?
others, but still a lot of harmful effects to the individual
do synthetic cannabinoids do more harm to self or others?
self because they are lab constructed rather than naturally occurring
what are different ways of naming a drug?
chemical name - chemical composition
generic name - lets you know what type of drug it is
trade name - drug company develops it and can rename it
street name- varies considerably
what is a drug dose and how is it decided upon?
The impact of a drug is related to its concentration in the body, with the dose often measured in mg/kg based on body weight.
what is a drug response curve?
a visual way to establish a picture of the effects of a drug.
what is ED50?
median effective dose- the dose that is effective in 50% of the subjects tested
what is LD50?
median lethal dose - the dose the is lethal in 50% of subjects tested
what is know regarding drug safety?
the further the distance between ED50 and LD50 the better. therapeutic index.
therapeutic index
an objective way to describe the safety of the drug. TI = LD50/ED50. the higher the TI the safer the drug.
two ways to describe the extent of a drugs effects
potency & effectiveness
what is drug potency?
differences in ED50 of the two drugs that have the same effect. e.g., a lower dose of A is more effective than a higher dose of B even though they have the same effect, think less is more.
what is drug effectiveness?
differences in the maximum effect that drugs will produce at any dose
primary vs side effects
primary effects are the intended result in treatment whereas side effects are the unintended effects.
Drug Interactions
Combinations of drugs can lead to additive effects, antagonism, or super additive effects, influencing their overall impact on the body.
in a drug interactions graph, a drug that is higher in potency will shift the dose-response curve towards the left or right?
left
additive effect
adding an addition drug and the effect it has on the original drug. The combination effect of two or more chemicals equal to the sum of the effect of each agent acting independently(additive). Shifts dose response curve to the left.
drug antagonism
one drug diminished the effect of the other, can decrease the potency and effectiveness. If you are taking a drug for a particular reason, anything else that occurs that is not the primary reason is considered a side effect, unintended.
super additive effect/potentiation
combining drugs increases the effect, need more of the first drug when another is added in order to achieve the effect of the original drug on its own. Drug that is being added is antagonising the effect of the 1st drug.
what is pharmacokinetics and the three processes?
The study of how drugs are absorbed, distributed, and eliminated in the body, crucial for understanding their effects. includes absorption, distribution and elimination.
4 routes of administration
oral, inhalation, and intravenous, each affecting absorption and onset of action.
parental
injection under the skin
transdermal
absorbed through the skin, good if you want the drug to be absorbed slowly
vehicle
before a drug can be injected it must be a liquid
other routes of adminstration.
Vehicle (before a drug can be injected it must be a liquid
Subcutaneous (needle inserted under the skin or cutaneous tissue
Intramuscular (needle inserted into the muscle)
Intraperitoneal (needle inserted into the peritoneal cavity)
Intravenous (needle inserted into the vein)
non-human/invasive routes of adminstration
Intrathecal (inserted between the base of the skull and the first vertebra) Drug gets left in the CFS
Intracerebroventricular (inserted directly in the brain’s ventricles)
Intracerebral (inserted directly into brain tissue) often through cannula
Blood-Brain Barrier
A protective barrier that regulates which substances can enter the brain, influencing drug effects on the central nervous system. substances can not pass BBB if too highly charger, too large or not lipid soluble.
veins
carry blood to the heart
arteries
carry blood away from the heart and to the rest of the body
capillaries
permeate most body tissues, drugs move through capillaries into blood through diffusion.
lipid solubility and absorption
all tissue in the body is composed of cells that form membranes
in order to get inside the cell, drugs have to cross phospholipid bilayers
drugs that can dissolve in fat (lipid soluble) are more readily absorbed
passive transport/diffusion
most basic and least efficient way “moving from areas of higher concentration to low concentration”. Does NOT require energy. Moves with diffusion gradient. Takes a long time.
Active transport
works against diffusion gradient, DOES require energy. Costly process.
placental barrier
similar to blood-brain-barrier. Drug concentration in the blood of the fetus reaches 75-100% of that in the mother in roughly 5 minutes. Drugs cross the barrier quite easily, very little protection for the fetes from drugs administered to the mother
Metabolism and Excretion
Drugs are metabolized primarily in the liver and excreted through the kidneys, with the rate of elimination often described by half-life. requires enzymes and uses catalysts that control chemical reactions.
what is half-life
the time it takes for the amount of a drugs active substance in your body is reduced by half. exception to this rule is alcohol (as alcohol is consumed in large quantities and saturates enzymes quickly).
First-pass metabolism
drugs are absorbed through the digestive system, passing through the liver first
what are some factors that alter drug metabolism?
stimulation of enzyme systems & depression of enzyme systems. e.g., excess alcohol dehydrogenase in liver of heavy drinkers or disulfiram blocks aldehyde dehydrogenase (makes you sick if you drink it).
age- enzyme production and function changes with age
species - levels of certain enzymes differ between species
what is therapeutic window for drugs?
to be effective the right level of drug must be maintained in the blood for an extended period of time. Too much will produce side effects, too little will not produce the wanted therapeutic effect.
Tolerance and Sensitization
Tolerance refers to decreased drug effectiveness with repeated use, while sensitization is an increased response to a drug after repeated exposure.
Classical Conditioning
Drug effects can be conditioned, where environmental cues associated with drug use elicit responses similar to the drug's effects.
Operant Conditioning
The relationship between behavior and its consequences, where reinforcement influences the likelihood of a behavior being repeated.
Neurotransmitters
Chemicals that transmit signals in the nervous system, with various drugs affecting their release, reuptake, and receptor binding.
what did Jacques-Joseph Moreau do?
became interested in doing systematic analysis of the effects of weed on CNS. used himself and others as test subjects documenting results.
what took place as part of evolution science in the development and use of drugs?
modern chemical techniques for synthesizing active chemical in drugs
modern refinements in the study of behaviour
how can introspection be defined?
to observation of ones own mental and emotional processes.
who is John B Watson and what did he do?
felt that science, and psychology should study only observable behaviour rather than subjective behaviour. (behaviourist movement)
what did early studies of drugs on behaviour look like?
carried out by pharmacologists involved unstructured observations of lab animals after given drugs, monitored running, sleep, convulsions.
if the drug increased locomotor activity, it was taken to indicate it as CNS stimulant.
if drug decreased locomotor activity, it was taken as a CNS depressant
however the same dose of the same drug can impact behaviour significantly depending on what occurs before the drug. (Dew pigeon study).
behavioural pharmacology
interactions between drugs, organisms and the environment
what is chlorpromazine and its purpose?
in 1951 it was synthesised, was considered useful for general anesthesia as it produced a cooling of the body temperature and disinterest without loss of consciousness. drug was taken by psychiatric patients had the ability to live a normal life.
what was chlorpromazine labelled as?
in 1952 it was marketed as an antipsychotic labelled Thorazine
Who was Peter Dew and what was his role in behavioral pharmacology?
studied effects of drugs on pigeons had then pecking for grain reinforcement in a operant chamber. after giving pigeons pentobarbital Dew measured change in responding that occur after the drug. trained the pigeons on different schedules (FR 50 and FI 15)
what were the results from Dew pigeon study?
comparatively FI-15 to FR-50 schedule produced a lower rate of responding
Who is Joseph V. Brady and what was his role in behavioral pharmacology?
Believed neuroscience could be useful in understanding the effect of drugs on behaviour. Also drugs and behavioural pharmacology research could tell us a lot about the function of the brain. Conducted important research on relationship between stress and ulcers, stress was a physical illness, producing physiological problems.
Fillmore and Vogel-Sprott (1992)
studied the placebo effect using coffee and performance task. no one got any caffeine, but expectations had an impact on behaviour.
what does a balanced placebo design consist of?
4 groups:
expect a drug, get a drug
Expect a drug, get a placebo
Don’t expect to get a drug, get a drug
Don’t expect to get a drug, get a placebo
three group designs used when a drug is undergoing a clinical trial
experimental drug
placebo
established treatment (test new drug for its affects against an already established treatment)
what are the ratio schedules?
Fixed ration (FR) = reinforcement delivered after fixed number of responses
Variable ratio (VR) = reinforcement delivered after a specified average (slot machines)
what are interval schedules?
Fixed interval (FI) = reinforcement delivered for the first response after a fixed amount of time has elapsed.
Variable interval (VI) = reinforcement is delivered for the first response after an amount of time that varies around a specified average.
what is the avoidance escape task?
Animal can be taught to avoid/escape aversive stimuli.
Threat conditioning- chamber with two rooms/compartments in one you can deliver a CS (tone) teach animal to know that the sound may result in a shock. When the subject is given a shock, they then run out of compartment where they are safe Escape.
Pair CS with shock Leaving chamber when shock is on, they are escaping, leaving chamber when CS is on, they are avoiding.
Important distinction as it has to do with a lot of aspects of anxiety disorders. Sensitive screen for antipsychotic drugs working in people. blocks the ability to avoid shock but not the ability to escape.
discrimative stimulus
a stimulus in the presence of which a specific response will be reinforced. For example, stop sign is a stimulus to tell you that in the presence of the stops sign, if you don’t stop you might get a ticket. Stop sign is a discriminative stimulus in the presence of which stopping is rewarded.
drug discrimination procedure
train the rats to press on specific lever depending on what drug is on board, give the rats an injection of drug. rat is learning to base responding on what the drug makes it feel
what is drug response rate?
the greater the reinforcer the faster the animal will respond. some drugs at certain doses may interfere with the ability to respond.
what is a progressive ratio schedule for drugs?
requires the subject to perform increasing numbers of level presses for the presentation of a reinforcer.
what is a breakpoint?
the highest number of levers pressed in a session, the point where the animal no longer finds its rewarding.
what is choice procedure?
models the tendency to repeatedly take a drug by arranging a series of choices between and active drug & a placebo or alternative. trains the animal to understand the pressing different levers = infusion of different drugs.
what is conditioned place preference?
tests the extent to which the reinforcing effects of a drug will condition preference for the location in which those effects were experienced. certain location has been paired with previously rewarding events.
ways to tell drug effects on human behaviour?
subjective effects; personal accounts
rating scales (VAS, POMS, ARCI)
drug state discrimination; exposure to drug or placebo asked to identify the condition they are in.
what effects do drugs have on sensation & perception?
thresholds
motor performance
attention and vigilance
memory
response inhibition
absolute threshold
lowest value of a stimulus that can be detected by sensory organs. anything below is not detected.
difference threshold
minimum level of stimuli that a person can detect. e.g., using two point sensitivity test on various parts of the body seeing how close the callipers have to be where a subject stops feeling two points.
what is critical frequency at fusion
when flashing lights will begin to look like a solid light as the frequency increases. drugs will have an effect on when the light appears stable & flashing.
examples of motor performance
simple reaction time - person must make a response once a signal is given
complex reaction time - several responses and several signals
Note 
Flashcard (32)