Anthro 1AA3

What is anthropology at its core?

= the systemic study of humankind

Define enculturation

= acquisition of characteristics and norms of a culture (moral values, language, food and clothes)

What do anthropologists work against (+ define)?

ethnocentrism (idea that one culture is better than another) and biological determinism (human behaviour is generalized by culture and origin_

Name anthropological tenets

cultural relativism (understanding another culture in its own terms) and biocultural approach (cultural upbringing and biology determines who we are)

What are the 4 fields of anthropology?

biological (human origins and evolution), archaeology (past societies/cultures), linguistic (construction and use of language), cultural (contemporary cultures and societies) + applied anthropology

7 Taxons of Classification

Kingdom, Phylum, Class, Order, Family, Genus, Species

Taxons for humans

K: animaliaP: chordataC: mammaliaO: primatesF: hominidaeG: homoS: sapiens

Distinguishing traits of primates

- reliance on vision- reduced olfaction- arboreal adaptation- dietary plasticity- extended parental investment/slow life history- complex social structures

Characteristics of enhanced vision in primates

color vision, binocular (facing forward) or stereoscopic (3D perception)

Characteristics of reduced olfaction in primates

reduced, or no snout in most primates (wet nose)

What are Strepsirrhini?

lemurs, lorises and galagos

Characteristics of Strepsirrhini

- least related to humans- rely on smell and larger snouts- smaller brains and small bodies

Characteristics of Platurrhines

- New World: South America- flat/broad noses- rounded nostrils- less developed colour vision

Characteristics of Catarrhines

- Old World: Africa- teardrop-shaped nose and downward-pointing nostrils- larger nostrils- color vision

Characteristics of Hominoids

- larger body size- no tail- longer arms than legs- complex behaviors

Who are hominoids?

apes and humans

Who are Genus Pongo?

Orangutangs

Characteristics of Genus Pongo

- largest arboreal primate- mainly solitary

Characteristics of Genus Gorilla

- Sub-Saharan Africa- Largest Primate- Terrestrial- Knuckle-walking

Characteristics of Pan Trogoldytes

- closest to humans (98% same DNA)-Semiarboreal-terrestrial- Omnivorous- highly social and territorial- tool use

Who are Pan Trogoldytes?

chimpanzees

Characteristics of Homo Sapiens

- most widely distributed primate on planet- large brain: extreme cognitive ability- bipedal locomotion- reduced dentition and olfaction- omnivorous- tool use

Misconceptions on evolution

1. Evolution is only a theory2. Humans evolved from monkey (human and other non-human primates share common ancestors)

How is evolution facilitated by natural selection?

- biological characteristics are inherited and become more common over generations- advantageous to an individual possessing them -\> can also be neutral- response to environmental pressure = species have to work around

6 events in Hominin evolution

1. Bipedalism (6 MYA)2. Non-Honing Chewing: diastema (space) allows for top tooth to sharpen canines3. Material Culture + Tools4. Speech5. Hunting6. Domestication

Theories of the origins of bipedalism

- transition from rainforest (bend down) to savanna (high grass)- easier to see predators- thermoregulation (energy expended on 2 legs, temperature)- free use of hands

How do we know it is bipedal?

- skeleton organization: spine joins skull at middle/base to facilate sight vs. dogs spine at back of head- spine: S-curve to facilitate standing straight + supporting ourselves (FRAME AND MAGNUM)- pelvis: borader and wider to support organisms- foot: arch to give support

Advantages of bipedalism

- increased ability to see greater distance- greater ease at transporting things (food, offspring, tools)- freeing hands use- ability to run long distances

Disadvantages of Bipedalism

- standing upright = exposure to predators- carrying + walking = back pain- one injured foot = ability to walk is reduced

Who are Hominins?

- Sahelanthropus Tchadensis- Australopithecus Afarensis- Homo Habilis- Homo Erectus- Homo Neanderthalensis

Characteristics of Sahelanthropus Tchadensis

- Chad dessert- Brain similar to modern apes- massive brow ridge likely bipedal- non-honing dentition

Characteristics of Ardipithecus Ramidus

- Valley, Ethiopia- "part-time" bipedal- curved foot phalanges- foot bones and musculature, rigid- possible it used hand and feet to walk on tree branches and walked upright on the ground

Characteristics of Genus-Australopithecus

- small brains- small canines and large premolars/molars (= varied diet)- vary in size + robustiously- 10 species identified = lots of fossils found

Characteristics of Australopithecus Afarensis

- Ethiopia- Lucy: adult female, 40% complete- skeleton similar to humans, but also similar to chimps

Characteristics of the Laetoli Footprints

- Tanzania- most likely Australopithecus Afarensis- G1/G2 walking alongside, while G3 followed before- shape of feet and toes understand that species are similar to humans- G1 may be another hominin since walking in different pattern- Herbicide and laver boulders used to preserve footprints from plant growth

Characteristics of Genus-Homo

- large brain size- smaller, flatter face- smaller jaws and teeth- larger body- longer legs/shorter arms- decline in sexual dimorphism (physical distinction between 2 sexes)- associated material culture (tool us)

Characteristics of Homo Habilis

- postcranial similar to Australopithecus- founded skull, flatter face- smaller teeth- stone tools (Oldowan)

Key sites for Homo Habilis

EthiopiaTanzania

What are Oldowan stone tools?

- oldest stone tool industry- Flake and chopper tools- butchering animals- experimental archaeology

Characteristics of Homo erectus

- larger body size- thick cranial bones- larger brains that Homo habilis- modern body size + proportions- first hominin to leave Africa (fossils found in Eurasia)- Acheulean stone tools- use of fire

Characteristics of Acheulean stone tools

- Africa, Asia, Europe- Symmetrical, bifacial flaking (all edges are used)- planning + skill- multi-use tool: cutting, scraping, chopping

Use of fire for Homo Erectus

- probable accidental discovery: wood ashes where trees dont naturally grow (caves)- possible reason for smaller teeth: easier to masticate, smaller cooked foods- benefits: cooking warmth, light, social benefit

Characteristics of Homo Neanderthalensis

- Western Europe, Middle East, Western Asia- common ancestor with homo sapiens: possible subspecies- body adapted to colder climates: shorter build, broader hips- interbred with H. Sapiens

Where did Neanderthals go?

interbreeding with Homo Sapiens or just died out

primary sex characteristics

- not directly part of reproduction (pubic hair, breast size)- arise during puberty- external signals to others that you have reached certain point of maturity (sex from evolutionary perspective)

Sex characteristics are:

- physical traits- hormonally controlled (androgens and estrogens)- increased at puberty- sex is most evident in adults

What is Castrato?

- popular in 16-17th century- males castrated before onset of puberty (no testis)- little to no testosterone: voice never deepens- voice equivalent to soprano or contralto

Famous castrato singer

Gaspare Pacchierotti- skeletal remains exhumed and examined- despite castration: skeleton still displayed "typical" male morphology

Factors of human sexual dimorphism

- size differences: men are taller- robusticity + muscularity- smaller pelvis in men: narrow and lower in females to accommodate children

Who is the Red Lady of Paviland?

- discovered in 1832 in the Paviland Cave in Wales- oldest human remains in Britain- coated in red ochre- assumed that the bones were female, witch or prostitute- figured that it was a man (21yo)

Define intersex

= when reproductive/sexual anatomy does not fit typical biological definition of male/female (hermaphroditism)

What is Turner's syndrome?

a genetic condition that affects 1/2500 females- X chromosome is (partially) missing- poor or non-development of ovaries

What is Klinefelter's syndrome?

a genetic condition that affects 1/500 males- extra X chromosome- reduced testosterone: little to no sperm production- female pubic hair pattern

How did anthropology evolve after the 1930s?

Margaret Mead moved the focus towards:- gender roles- concepts of masculinity and femininity- context-specific gender performance- third and alternate genders- gender inequality

How is gender learned?

- starts at birth- what is socially appropriate for your gender

How does gender have impact?

- sex/gender influences how you view your future child- inheritance = get more money if first born son (succession to the Throne Act 2013)

How is gender performed?

consciously or unconsciously through language, body, movement and gender markers

Gender markers

- clothes- colours- hair- adornments (jewelry)- occupations/activities- body language

How is gender dynamic?

- Louis 14: wearing heels to tower over women- Pink and Blue: opposite in the past (blue was delicate while pink was loud)

What is the meaning of 'realness' to the ball in Paris is Burning?

archetype of being heterosexual: blending in and portraying x social status

What role does community play in ball culture?

drag mothers take youth under their wings for protection and resources

What are third or alternate genders?

when biological sex does not correspond with expected gender roles/construct/identity

Characteristics of Two Spirit

- definition and understanding is specific to each nation- Specialize in activities associated with opposite gender- Calling or feeling; not assigned at birth- Lifelong, revered role: leadership, shaman (esteemed role + access to spiritual world)- Not always associated with sexuality- Unity in self-identity: no sexual relations with other 2Ss

Characteristics of Hijras

- India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Nepal- Legal, recognized third gender- Born male, some intersex- Wear "woman's" clothes- Impotent: naturally or castration- Do not view themselves as "male" or "female"- Relatively, low social status- Sex work as only option§ Sense of community

Characteristics of transgender individuals

- Not legally recognized- Stigmatization- Umbrella term: no nice little category to fit all- New binary of trans & cis- Negative attitudes reflect societal anxieties

What counts as sexual behaviour?

can vary depending on who you ask- kissing- normal vs. deviant sexual acts- foreplay- oral sex- vaginal sex- masturbation- anal sex- sexual positions- fetishes

Characteristics of Aka tribe

- Republic of Congo + Central African Republic- hunter/gatherer society- sex referred to only in context of reproduction: work and not pleasure

Characteristics of Ritualized Homosexuality in Sambia People

- Papua New Guinea- rituals to erasing feminity- boys engage in sexual practices with adult men as part of initiation into manhood (ingest semen)- only have sex with women from this point unless initiating other young males

Characteristics of Ritualized Homosexuality in Classical Greek Mythology

- adult men mentoring adolescent boys- prominent in myths about warriors

Define substinence strategies

= how a society provides food for itself

Impacts of substinence societies

- how ppl live- social complexity- nutritional/health status

Break down "Agriculture"

agri- (ager) = field-culture (cultura) = cultivation

Characteristics of hunters and gatherers

- roaming environment, foraging for food- gathering edible plants, seeds and fruits- being opportunistic in findings- small group (less than 75)- nomadic (no long term settlements, little material culture)- fairly egalitarian

Examples of early evidence of agriculture

- intensive use of wild cereals- new tools on the scene (grind stone)- harvesting and grinding- pottery and food storage- more permanent sites: rise of established structured villages- increased social complexity: one may be able to produce more (controls power)

Define domestication

process of adapting plants and animals for human use- based on desired qualities- genetic modification due to human inteference

Define a good candidate for domestication in dogs

- easy to feed and keep alive- quick, reliable and ample offspring- have family structures to exploit

When was the first dog domesticated?

20 000-40 000 YA THROUGH BREEDING

4 ecological regions for agriculture (+what they cultivated)

1. Fertile Crescent (barley, wheat, sheep, goast, cattle, dogs)2. Mesoamerica (Maize, beans, squash)3. Highland Andes (llama, guinea pig, potato, quinoa)4. Yangtzi + Yellow Rivers (rice and millet)

Consequences of plant domestication

- starve off scarcity and hunger = all easily stored- increase presence of rodents

Characteristics of cat domestication

- later than dogs (10000-12000)- "self" or "quasi" domesticated: dont meet checklist- still have behaviors inherited from ancient ancestors

Impacts of Agriculture

- dependency on food resources: have own food source for later- major change in diet- more technology (irrigation)- specialization of labour- more sedentary societies- investment in architecture- more diverse material culture- increase in population- increased social stratification- emerging of ruling class

Impacts of agriculture on health status

- decline in nutrition and health- dependence on one or two main crops- uneven food distribution (= social status)- more infectious diseases acquired from animals- accumulation of waste- higher populations favours heard diseases

How can we examine the effects of agriculture on the human body?

- bioarchaeology- study of human skeletal and mummified remains- skeleton- metabolic disorders (abnormal growth, indicators of stress)

Name metabolic disorders

- scurvy (vitamin C deficiency, easily bruised, skeletal porosity at mandible and temporal bones)- anemia (reduction of hemoglobin in the blood)- dental disease (caries, tooth loss, dental wear, abscess)

What is stable isotope analysis?

= what we use to know what ppl eat in the past- look at isotope ratios in their bones + teeth- carbon, oxygen and nitrogen

How is food social?

- to feed or not to feed (food as expectations, invited or not)- who do you not eat with (kids table)

How is food biocultural?

there is sustenance and symbol (linked to status and power)

What determines food choices?

- culture- religion: certain food is prohibited, fasting- environment- economic: what can we afford to eat- personal factors: like or dislikes

How does food have personal meaning?

- comfort food- celebrated food- food memory: emotional responsiveness and memories- food aversions

How are food choices shaped by context?

- time of day (breakfast foods)- time of year- event- social setting: who + what context you are meeting

How does food have status?

- ingredients- complexity of dish (effort)- costs- who prepared it- location

Different food models/guidelines of different cultures

- what food is needed for proper nutrition- what food for a balanced diet- how much of each food should one eat- what influences these guidelines

What is Wigilia?

- Polish Christmas Eve dinner- 12 dishes- Pescaterian- begins once the first star is seen

How does food have ritual?

- preparation of food (preparing ingredients and cooking)- presentation of food- how you eat (order and combination of food)- table setting: informal or formal

How does food have material culture?

- cutlery and crockery- tools- costume- markers of status and wealth (KitchenAid)- culturally specific: bamboo box

Characteristics of food classification systems

- often a dichotomy- edible or inedible (insects)- type of meal (breakfast)- male (meat) or female (salad)- adult or child

Define food restrictions

= periodic denial of certain foods

Define food taboos

= deliberate, constant avoidance of food items for reasons other than simple dislike (don't touch it, avoid it all together)

Examples of food taboos related to animal resources

- pigs: Muslim, Jewish, Ethiopian Orthodox Christians- Cows: Hindu- Carnivores rarely eaten in few cultures

What is medicinal cannibalism?

= eat part of dead human can provide health benefits(Mamia: pieces of Egyptian lungs)