cognition unit 2

Perception

Organizing and interpreting sensory information.

Top-Down Processing

Using prior knowledge to interpret sensory input.

Bottom-Up Processing

Building perception from sensory input alone.

Schemas

Mental frameworks that organize information.

Perceptual Sets

Expectations that influence how we perceive things.

Gestalt Psychology

The whole is different from the sum of its parts.

Closure

Filling in gaps to create a complete image.

Figure/Ground

Distinguishing an object from its background.

Proximity

Grouping nearby figures together.

Similarity

Grouping similar items together.

Selective Attention

Focusing on one stimulus while ignoring others.

Cocktail Party Effect

Ability to focus on one voice among many.

Change Blindness

Failing to notice changes in the environment.

Inattentional Blindness

Missing visible objects when attention is elsewhere.

Binocular Depth Cues

Depth cues needing both eyes.

Retinal Disparity

Difference between each eye's image gives depth.

Convergence

Eyes turn inward to focus on close objects.

Monocular Depth Cues

Depth cues using one eye only.

Relative Clarity

Clearer objects appear closer.

Relative Size

Smaller objects are perceived as farther away.

Texture Gradient

Detail decreases with distance.

Linear Perspective

Parallel lines appear to meet with distance.

Interposition

Closer objects block those farther away.

Perceptual Constancy

Perceiving objects as unchanging despite changes in view.

Apparent Motion

Seeing movement where none exists.

Concepts

Mental groupings of similar objects or ideas.

Prototypes

Best example of a category.

Assimilation

Fitting new info into existing schemas.

Accommodation

Changing schemas to fit new info.

Algorithms

Step-by-step methods that guarantee a solution.

Heuristics

Simple rules that speed up problem solving.

Representativeness Heuristic

Judging by how similar something is to a prototype.

Availability Heuristic

Judging by how easily examples come to mind.

Mental Set

Tendency to approach problems the same way.

Priming

Unconscious activation of related ideas.

Framing

The way an issue is presented affects decisions.

Gambler's Fallacy

Belief that past random events affect future ones.

Sunk-Cost Fallacy

Continuing something due to past investment.

Executive Functions

Mental skills for planning and control.

Creativity

Producing novel and valuable ideas.

Divergent Thinking

Generating many possible solutions.

Convergent Thinking

Narrowing to one best solution.

Functional Fixedness

Seeing objects only in their usual uses.

Memory

The process of storing and recalling information.

Explicit Memory

Memory of facts and experiences one can declare.

Episodic Memory

Memory of personal events.

Semantic Memory

Memory of general knowledge and facts.

Implicit Memory

Unconscious memory of skills and procedures.

Procedural Memory

Memory of how to perform tasks.

Prospective Memory

Remembering to perform future actions.

Long-term Potentiation

Strengthening of neural connections with learning.

Working Memory Model

Explains short-term storage and manipulation of info.

Working Memory

Temporary holding and processing of information.

Central Executive

Directs attention and coordinates working memory.

Phonological Loop

Holds verbal and auditory information.

Visuospatial Sketchpad

Holds visual and spatial information.

Multi-Store Model

Explains memory as sensory, short-term, and long-term stores.

Sensory Memory

Immediate, brief recording of sensory info.

Iconic Memory

Visual sensory memory.

Echoic Memory

Auditory sensory memory.

Short-Term Memory

Briefly holds about 7 items of information.

Long-Term Memory

Relatively permanent and limitless storage.

Automatic Processing

Unconscious encoding of routine info.

Effortful Processing

Conscious, deliberate encoding of information.

Encoding

Getting information into memory.

Storage

Retaining information over time.

Retrieval

Getting information out of memory.

Levels of Processing Model

Memory depends on depth of processing.

Structural Processing

Shallow encoding based on appearance.

Phonemic Processing

Encoding based on sound.

Semantic Processing

Deep encoding based on meaning.

Mnemonic Devices

Memory aids using associations or patterns.

Method of Loci

Associating items with physical locations.

Chunking

Grouping info into meaningful units.

Categorization

Organizing items into groups.

Hierarchy

Arranging info from broad to specific.

Spacing Effect

Distributed learning improves retention.

Memory Consolidation

Strengthening memories after learning.

Massed Practice

Cramming information in one session.

Distributed Practice

Spacing study sessions over time.

Serial Position Effect

Remembering first and last items best.

Primacy Effect

Remembering items at the beginning.

Recency Effect

Remembering items at the end.

Rehearsal

Repeating info to keep it in memory.

Maintenance Rehearsal

Simple repetition to hold info.

Elaborative Rehearsal

Linking new info to existing knowledge.

Autobiographical Memory

Memory of one's own life experiences.

Highly Superior Autobiographical Memory (HSAM)

Unusually detailed recall of personal events.

Retrograde Amnesia

Loss of past memories.

Anterograde Amnesia

Inability to form new memories.

Alzheimer's Disease

Brain disorder causing memory loss and confusion.

Infantile Amnesia

Inability to recall early childhood memories.

Recall

Retrieving info without cues.

Recognition

Identifying info from choices.

Retrieval

Getting stored info back into awareness.

Context-Dependent Memory

Better recall when in same environment.

State-Dependent Memory

Better recall when in same state of mind.

Mood-Congruent Memory

Remembering experiences that match current mood.

Testing Effect

Long-term memory improves after retrieval practice.

Metacognition

Thinking about one's own thinking.