Week 3 LO'S

4 boundaries of the abdominal cavity

1. Diaphragm (cranial)

2. Pelvic inlet (caudal)

3. Vertebrae and epaxial muscles (dorsal)

4. Costal arch and abdominal wall muscles (ventral/lateral)

Peritoneal cavity

Cavity that surrounds the abdominal ,muscles; a serous potential space with no organs and only a little bit of serous fluid in it

Peritoneum

serous membrane lining the cavity and covering organs

Retroperitoneal cavity

on the outside of the peritoneal cavity and has organs not completely surrounded by the visceral peritoneum

Intraperitoneal cavity

surrounded by the peritoneal cavity 

Parietal peritoneum

periosteum that’s along the wall of the peritoneal cavity

Visceral peritoneum

peritoneum that covers organs completely (viscera)

4 divisions of the stomach

1. Pyloric part, cardiac part, fundus, body

3 segments of small intestine

1. Duodenum, jejunum, ileonum

3 segments of the large intestine

1. cecum, colon (ascending, transverse, descending), rectum

Path od food through GI tract

1. Oral cavity, oropharynx, laryngopharynx, esophagus, stomach, small intestine (duodenum, jejunum, ileonum), cecum, colon (ascending, transverse, descending), rectum, anus

Basic functions of liver

1. stores glycogen and vitamins, metabolizes fat and crabs and proteins and vitamin d, biotransformation of drugs, creates important proteins (albumin), secretes bile, largest gland

Basic functions of stomach

1. digestion and absorption

Basic functions of gallbladder

1. bile storage/concentration, release bile into small intestine to aid digestion  (of fat especially)

Basic functions of spleen

1. filters blood, stores and creates RBCs, immune functions 

Basic functions of pancreas

1. Exocrine: acinar cells produce digestive enzymes

2. Endocrine: islets of Langerhans produce insulin and glucagon

Basic functions of kidneys

1. filters water/solutes, removes waste, filters blood

Basic functions of intestines

1. Small: digestion, water absorption

2. Large: water absorption, mucous secretion (lubrication, stool)

Major landmarks of a normal lateral abdominal radiograph

1. Stomach (gas/fluid patterns; location varies)

2. Intestinal loops (small vs. large patterns)

3. Liver silhouette (cranial abdomen, near diaphragm)

4. Kidneys (dorsal, right typically more cranial)

5. Bladder (caudoventral, size depends on filling)

Pyometra

1. pus-filled uterus that causes infection if not treated 

Pathogenisis of pyometra

1. maybe Cystic Endometrial Hyperplasia = increased secretions, prone to infection

When Pyometra occurs

1. 8 weeks without estrus, in older (5.3 years in queen) female unspayed 

Open Pyometra

1. when cervix is open and so infection can be released out

Main treatment for open Pyometra

1. Medical → antibiotics, progesterone

   1. Valued as breeding animal

   2. Failures: abortion, failure to conceive

Closed Pyometra

1. when cervix is closed and infection cannot be released → get worse

Main treatment for closed Pyometra

1. Surgical → Ovariohysterectomy, antibiotics

   1. Is not breed, systemically ill

   2. Complications: renal/liver disease, uterine rupture, sepsis, endotoxemia

Ovariectomy

1. surgical removal of ovaries 

   1. Friable tissue, rupture = sepsis, anemia 

Ovariohysterectomy

1. surgical removal of ovaries and uterus

Orchiectomy

1. surgical removal of testes

Blood supply and location of incision canine castration

 Testicles – Testicular artery & vein

 Prepuce – Caudal Sup. Epigastric a. & v.

 Scrotum – Cranial Scrotal a. & v. (from Ext. Pud.)

Reasons for sterilization

1. Pyometra

2. Neoplasia: uterine, ovarian, mammary

3. Behaviors (males = spraying, marking, roaming)

4. Cancer

5. Prevent unwanted pregnancies

6. Prevent overpopulation

Issue that overpopulation of dogs and cats can create

1. Public health and zoonotic disease, spread of disease to other species -FeIV, FIV (cats/dogs), public nuisance, predation of wildlife, disruption o ecosystems, welfare

Publix health and zoonotic disease

Rabies

Different strategies for controlling overpopulation in dogs/cats

1. Destroy on site, do nothing, trap and remove and euthanize, trap and relocate, trap neuter and return, non-surgical contraception (control source)

Trap, neuter, release (TNR)

1. goal is stabilization  or reduction of local population sterilization

Define what animal shelters are in one sentence

1. organizations of any size or type who provide temporary housing or routine are for companion animals (classified by: funding source and intake policy)

what the acronym HQHVSN stands for

1. High quality, high volume spay/neuter → reduces animal population 

True or false: local shelters are not affiliated with or supported by national organization:

True

National organizations and relation to local shelters

1. ASPCA, Humane World for Animals,. American Humane Society → do not fund local shelters

5 freedoms necessary for proper animal welfare

1. freedom from hunger and thirst (get water), freedom from discomfort (shelter), freedom from pain, injury, or disease, freedom to express normal behavior, freedom from fear and distress

what topics influence a mental state as well as welfare state of dogs and cats

1. nutrition, physical environment, health, behavioral interactions (environment, other animals, humans)

What makes up the welfare state

Mental state

Major structures of the abdomen

Cranial, middle, caudal

Cranial structures of abdomen

1. liver, stomach, pancreas, spleen (head)

Middle structures of the abdomen

1. spleen (tail), kidney (dorsal), small intestines

Caudal structures of abdomen

1. colon, urinary bladder, uterus

What is normally palpable in cats and dogs

1. kidneys, small intestine/jejunum, descending colon, bladder

What is normally not palpable in cats and dogs

1. liver, stomach, pancreas, uterus, 

Is the spleen palpable in cats

Yes

Are kidneys palpable in dogs

Yes

Cranial abdomen organs

1. liver, stomach, pancreas, spleen (head)

Middle abdomen organs

1. spleen (tail), kidney, small intestines (DJI), mesenteric lymph nodes, adrenal glands

Caudal abdomen organs

1. colon, urinary bladder, uterus 

Bolus of food through the GI tract

1. oral cavity, pharynx (oropharynx laryngopharynx larygnopharynx) esophagus esophagus, stomach, small intestine (duodenum, jejunum, ileum), large intestine (cecum, colon [ascending colon, transverse colon, descending colon], rectum), anus

Which diagnostics we can use to evaluate the abdomen

1. imaging (CT scans, x-rays, MRi scans, ultrasounds, CAT/PET), stool samples, blood tests, 

Regions of the stomach

1. cardia, fundus, body, pylorus

Parts of the stomach (cells)

1. neck (mucous cells) and base (parietal [secrete hydrochloric acid] and chief cells [secrete pepsinogen])

Small intestine parts

Large intestine parts

1. Cecum, colon, rectum, anus

Gastric glands structure

1. Open into the lumen of the stomach via gastric pits 

2. Extend through epithelium

Gastric glands secretions

1. Mucous cells (stomach): mucous 

2. Parietal cells (stomach): hydrochloric acid 

3. Chief cells (stomach): pepsinogen

Gastric glands functions

1. Mucous = gastric protectant, contains bicarbonate to neutralize stomach acid

2. Hydrochloric acid = helps digest food, kills microbes, and activates pepsinogen

3. Pepsinogen = an inactive precursor converted to pepsin, which

4. digests proteins

Gastric glands locations

1. stomach, fundus, body

Villi structure

1. Protrusions of epithelium into the intestinal lumen 

2. Increases surface area for absorption 

3. Contains enterocytes and goblet cells 

4. Duodeum: all villi

5. Jejunum: tall villi

6. Ileum: shorter villi

Villi function

absorption

Villi location

1. small intestine (DJI)

Villi secretions

Mucus in the intestinal cavity

Crypts structure

1. Invagination of epithelium 

2. Contain stem/progenitor cells and plenum cells

Crypts secretions

Water and electrolytes into intestinal lumen

Crypts functions

1. secretion + regeneration

Crypts locations

1. small intestine, large intestine (colon, rectum)

Difference between regurgitation and vomiting

1. vomiting actively uses your diaphragm and abdominal muscles to excrete liquid which regurgitating if the passive excretion of bile before reaching stomach; controlled by the memetic center

5 pathophysiologic mechanisms of diarrhea

1. hypersecretion, maldigestion, increased permeability, osmotic, altered motility

Basic etiology GDV

1. when theres water or food in the stomach and an animal runs around and twists their stomach and this prevents normal stomach from emptying and traps gas

Recommended treatment GDV

1. A gastropexy can be performed in high risk breeds to “tack” the stomach to the abdominal wall to decrease risk of volvulus (twisting)-surgery

Breeds prone to GDV

1. Great Danes, Weimaraners, Saint Bernards, Doberman Pinschers, German Shepherds, Standard Poodles, Irish Setters

Pancreas structure

1. Has fail-safe mechanisms to protect itself from its own enzymes

Pancreas function

1. produces digestive enzymes

Pancreas relation to GI tract

1. It acts as an accessory organ to the gastrointestinal (GI) tract, directly pouring digestive enzymes and neutralizing fluids through ducts into the small intestine

Basic etiology of Pancreas

1. large amounts of digestive enzymes are released prematurely and can secondarily inflame other neighboring organs; fail-safe mechanisms of pancreas are damaged

Why signalment and history are important for diagnosing and treating GI diseases

1. allow clinicians to establish disease chronicity, narrow the list of differentials, identify specific breed predispositions, and prevent costly, invasive testing when a straightforward dietary or symptomatic fix is possible

Immunity

1. the body's ability to fight off infectious antigens

Immunity consists of what

1. adaptive and innate immune systems

Vaccine

1. they mimic a natural infection to induce immune memory and protective responses

Differences between cell mediated and antibody mediated responses

1. cell mediated are by plasma cells (lymphocytes) and antibodies (immunoglobulins) that attack extracellular pathogen while antibody mediated responses are by Cytotoxic T cells (lymphocytes) that attack intracellular pathogens 

Plasma cells (lymphocyte)

1. B cells with specific receptors for the antigen become activated and can differentiate into plasma cells which prodigy specific antibodies 

Antibodies (immunoglobulins)

1. soluble proteins that can neutralize, opsonize, activate phagocytic and cell mediated toxicity pathways, and activate innate soluble factors 

Cytotoxic T cells (lymphocytes)

1. T cells with specific receptors recognize infected host cells and kill the cell directly

Killed vaccines

1. vaccines where a pathogen is completely dead/inactivated

Pros killed vaccines

1. stimulate antibody mediated immunity, few side effects, no potential for development of virulence

Cons killed vaccines

1. does not stimulate cell mediated immunity, not immunogenic (needs additives for response), may require more frequent boosters

Live vaccines

1. vaccines where the pathogen is intact and alive

Pros of live vaccines

1. stimulates both cell and antibody mediated immunity, immunogenic (provokes immune repose), robust memory develops

Cons of live vaccines

1. side effects are common, redevelopment of virulence can occur, in non-target species

Dog core vaccines

1. rabies, Canine Distemper Virus, Canine Adenovirus, Canine Pravovirus, Parinfluenza, Leptospira (DAPP, Leptopira can be combined with Lyme (non-core)

Cat core vaccines (5)

1. rabies, Feline Herpesvirus Type 1/Feline Rhinotracheitis, Feline Calicivirus, Feline Panleukopenia/Feline Parvovirus, Feline Leukemia Virus (FeLV) (FVRCP combined 5; FeLV only core when kittens)

Common vaccine reactions

Abnormal, expected toxicity

Abnormal vaccine reaction

1. Hypersensitivity/anaphylaxis = immune system mistakenly targets itself

2. Injection site sarcoma = a rare, diverse group of cancers that originate in the body's connective tissues, including bones, muscles, fat, tendons, and blood vessel

Expected toxicity injection reaction

1. Mild reaction of: Mild pain and swelling at injection site, lethargy

What we must always do when vaccinating cats

1. Feline Sarcoma: inflammation at the site of injection induces formation of soft tissue sarcoma → always inject as low as possible on extremity