23-25 chapters

How did Wilson’s foreign policy differ from Roosevelt and Taft?

Promoted a less expansionist, morality-based diplomacy, intervening only when there was a moral imperative.

Who was Wilson’s Secretary of State at the start of his presidency?

William Jennings Bryan, an anti-imperialist advocating for world peace.

What were Bryan’s key initiatives? →

• “Cooling off treaties” to avoid war

• Diplomacy with Colombia and the Philippines

• Promoted international commissions for peaceful dispute resolution

What diplomatic shift did Wilson make in Asia?

Rejected Taft’s “dollar diplomacy” and sought peaceful terms with Japan.

What agreement did the U.S. sign with Japan in 1917? →

Lansing-Ishii Agreement: U.S. acknowledged Japanese control of Manchuria, with Japan promising not to expand further.

Did Wilson avoid intervention in Latin America? →

No—he intervened more than Taft or Roosevelt, despite anti-interventionist rhetoric.

Where did Wilson send U.S. Marines between 1915–1917? →

• Haiti: following a presidential assassination and banking crisis

• Dominican Republic: to collect debt payments

• Cuba: to protect American sugar plantations from rebellion

What triggered Wilson’s involvement in Mexico?

Refusal to recognize Victoriano Huerta, calling for democratic elections instead.

Who initially received U.S. support?

Venustiano Carranza, an anti-Huerta rebel leader.

What occurred at Veracruz in 1914?

U.S. Navy landed to block German arms; 150 deaths, including 19 Americans.

What caused tensions with Carranza?

Carranza rejected U.S. aid, defended Mexico’s mineral rights, and pushed back on American oil companies.

Who did Wilson support after Carranza?

Pancho Villa, though Villa eventually attacked Columbus, New Mexico in 1916.

How did Wilson respond to Villa’s attack?

Sent General Pershing and 11,000 troops into Mexico—later recalled under pressure from Carranza.

Why did Wilson withdraw troops in 1917?

To avoid war with Mexico and prepare for European intervention.

What lesson did Wilson’s foreign policy demonstrate?

Idealism often clashed with economic and political realities, making moral diplomacy hard to sustain.

What event directly triggered World War I?

The assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand by Serbian nationalist Gavrilo Princip on June 28, 1914.

Which country did Austria-Hungary blame for the assassination?

Serbia; issued harsh demands that Serbia rejected.

What were the two major pre-war alliances in Europe? →

• Triple Entente: France, Great Britain, Russia

• Triple Alliance: Germany, Austria-Hungary, Italy

How did these alliances evolve into opposing sides? →

• Triple Alliance → Central Powers (added Ottoman Empire, Bulgaria)

• Triple Entente → Allied Powers (added U.S., Japan, others)

What role did “side treaties” play in escalating the war? →

Created defense commitments to protect smaller nations, further entangling powers in conflict.

What long-term factors contributed to the war? →

• Imperial competition

• Militarization

• Nationalism, especially in Germany, Italy, and Serbia

Why was Germany quick to declare war after Austria-Hungary acted? →

Feared Russian-French retaliation and aimed for a preemptive strike.

What made WWI different from previous European wars? →

• ntroduction of modern weapons: tanks, gas, airplanes, machine guns

• Trench warfare with huge casualties and little territorial gain

What was the total death toll by the end of WWI? →

• Military deaths: ~10 million

• Civilian deaths (combat/famine/disease): ~7 million

What was a German “unterseeboot” or U-boat? →

A submarine used to violate international law by sinking ships without warning.

How many vessels had German U-boats sunk by 1918?

Nearly 5,000

What made the sinking of the RMS Lusitania controversial? →

• 1,200 civilians killed, including 128 Americans

• German claims of ammunition aboard were later confirmed

Why was the Lusitania attack significant for the U.S.? →

Marked a turning point in American public opinion, challenging Wilson’s commitment to neutrality.

Why did Wilson initially maintain neutrality in WWI? →

• Based on moral principle, economic pragmatism, and political caution

• Wanted open trade with all belligerents

• Avoided unpopular war during reelection bid

What did Wilson mean by “true spirit of neutrality”? →

Fairness, impartiality, and friendliness to all nations—quoted in 1914 message to Congress

What did Wilson authorize in response to rising pressure?

• Preparedness campaign

• National Defense Act (1916) → Army doubled to 225,000

• Naval Appropriations Act (1916) → Expanded naval fleet

Who challenged Wilson in the 1916 election?

Charles Evans Hughes, Republican nominee

What campaign slogan helped Wilson win reelection? →

“Wilson—he kept us out of war”

. How did economics sway U.S. sentiment? →

• Exports to Allies jumped from $750M to $3B

• Exports to Germany dropped to $30M

• U.S. banks loaned > $500M to Britain, led by J.P. Morgan

How did immigration complicate neutrality? →

• Irish-Americans opposed British rule

• Jewish immigrants fled Russia

• German-Americans sympathized with Germany

• Mixed loyalties across ethnic groups

What promises did Germany make after Lusitania and Arabic attacks? →

Would identify ships and allow evacuation before attacking

What changed in early 1917? →

• Germany returned to unrestricted submarine warfare

• Laconia sunk in Feb. 1917 (2 Americans killed)

• Four more American ships sunk in March

Why did Germany push aggressive tactics? →

Wanted a quick victory before U.S. could tip the balance

What was the Zimmermann Telegram?

Secret message offering Mexico territory in exchange for war against the U.S.

Why did Germany want Mexico involved?

To distract U.S. and prevent its full entry into the war

How did the Russian Revolution influence Wilson’s decision? →

Removal of Tsar made democracy a shared cause with Allies

What date did Wilson ask Congress for a war declaration? →

April 2, 1917

What made the April 6 vote historically significant? →

• 56 “no” votes—largest opposition ever

• Jeannette Rankin, first Congresswoman, voted no

What act created America’s wartime draft?

Selective Service Act (1917); expanded in 1918 to include men ages 18–45

How many registered for the draft?

22 million total; 5 million drafted, 1.5 million volunteered, 500,000+ joined navy/marines

What role did women play?

20,000 volunteered, with 5,000 serving overseas as nurses or clerical staff

How was draft opposition handled? →

• 350,000 refused to register, including 65,000 conscientious objectors

• Some faced 20+ year prison sentences, with 17 death sentences

What law gave the president control over food and fuel?

Lever Food and Fuel Control Act

Who ran the Fuel Administration?

Harry Garfield; promoted “fuel holidays” and created daylight saving time

Who ran the Food Administration? → Herbert Hoover;

encouraged patriotic rationing: → “Meatless Mondays” and “Wheatless Wednesdays”

What was the role of the War Industries Board?

Led by Bernard Baruch; managed raw materials, contracts, and private wartime production

What transportation agency streamlined war logistics? →

U.S. Railroad Administration, led by William McAdoo

What funded the war effort? →

• Liberty Loan Act: sold liberty bonds, raising $23 billion

• Federal income tax from Sixteenth Amendment (1913)

Why was unity a challenge for Wilson? →

Diverse immigrant loyalties; needed “America First” propaganda to foster nationalism

What agency drove pro-war sentiment? →

Committee on Public Information, led by George Creel

How were German-Americans treated? →

• Faced persecution, name changes, book bans

• Schools and restaurants removed German language and culture

What laws restricted speech during wartime

• Trading with the Enemy Act (1917)

• Espionage Act (1917)

• Sedition Act (1918) → banned disloyal language

What court case upheld wartime censorship?

Schenck v. United States (1919); ruled that dissent posed a “clear and present danger”

What was the Committee of Public Information?

A government propaganda agency created days after war declaration; led by George Creel

What methods did Creel’s CPI use? →

• Artists, writers, speakers, filmmakers

• Promoted sacrifice and anti-German hatred

• Founded “loyalty leagues” in immigrant communities

How did anti-German sentiment manifest? →

• German music banned

• “Liberty dogs” & “liberty cabbage” replaced German food names

• German language removed from schools

• Even circuses weaponized stereotypes in their acts

What did the Trading with the Enemy Act (1917) do? →

• Banned individual trade with enemy nations

• Prohibited treasonous literature via mail

What did the Espionage Act (1917) prohibit?

• Spying or aiding the enemy

• Disloyal or antiwar public comments

• Penalties: fines and 20-year prison sentences

What did the Sedition Act (1918) ban? →

• Criticism of the government, Constitution, military, or flag

• Over 2,000 people charged; harsh sentences

• Deportation for immigrant dissenters

Who were key figures prosecuted under these acts? →

• Eugene Debs: sentenced to 10 years for resisting draft

• Victor Berger: denied Congressional seat

• A film producer: imprisoned for portraying British monarchy

What local/national groups enforced loyalty?

• Councils of defense: encouraged citizens to report dissent

• American Protective League: aided DOJ, opened mail, attacked draft evaders

What group emerged to challenge repression?

National Civil Liberties Bureau (1917) → evolved into ACLU (1920)

Who was Schenck and what did he do? →

Socialist leader who distributed anti-draft leaflets in Philadelphia

What was the outcome of the case? →Schenck v. United States (1919)

• Supreme Court upheld wartime restrictions

• Justice Holmes: dissent posed “clear and present danger”

• Famous analogy: yelling “fire!” in a crowded theater

What happened to the Espionage and Sedition Acts later?

Repealed in 1921; imprisoned dissenters released → Civil liberties remained a controversial issue in future wars

What prompted improved labor relations during WWI? →

Severe labor shortages + war production demands = incentive for government–labor cooperation

What organization represented workers? →

American Federation of Labor (AFL), led by Samuel Gompers

What was the “no-strike pledge”?

Labor agreed not to strike during war in exchange for rights to organize & bargain collectively

What agency enforced labor cooperation? →

National Labor War Board (created April 1918)

How did union membership change during the war?

Grew from 2.6 million (1916) → 4.1 million (1919)

Did workers’ income improve?

Wages increased, but inflation (15–20% annually) offset gains → Purchasing power declined, while corporate profits rose

How many women entered the workforce for the first time?

Over 1 million new workers; 8 million saw better wages

In what male-dominated sectors did women work? →

Railroads, assembly lines, factory jobs

What happened to women’s jobs postwar? →

Many were fired and expected to return to domestic roles

How did unions treat women workers? →

Often ambivalent or hostile; lower wages persisted

Who were the “Farmerettes”?

20,000 college-educated women in Women’s Land Army, ran farms during war

How many women served in military & humanitarian roles?

Approx. 30,000 → Nurses, Red Cross, YMCA, and “Hello Girls” (bilingual telephone operators in France)

What was the legacy of women’s wartime service? →

• Exposure to career possibilities

• Built support for women’s suffrage

• Many continued working in healthcare for veterans

What percent of U.S. soldiers were African American?

13% (approx. 350,000 men)

Who was the highest-ranking African American officer?

Colonel Charles Young, Tenth Cavalry

What challenges did Black soldiers face?

• Segregation and racism

• Limited to menial/support roles, though some saw combat

What was the Harlem Hellfighters’ legacy?

• Served 6 months on French frontlines

• Earned 171 Legion of Merit awards

• Celebrated with a NYC parade and artwork

What was the Great Migration?

Movement of African Americans from South to North for industrial jobs

How many African Americans migrated?

About 350,000 between 1910–1920

Where did they work?

Steel, mining, shipbuilding, automotive industries

What changed for African American women?

Expanded into manufacturing—100,000 employed by 1920

How did Whites react to Black veterans? →

• Feared demands for equality

• Enacted housing codes, economic limits, and violent reprisals

What were the race riot statistics in 1917? →

• Occurred in 25 cities

• Most deadly: East St. Louis, where 39 Black people died

What happened with lynching during the war? →

Rose from 38 (1917) to 83 (1919); many victims were Black veterans

What amendments were influenced by WWI?

• Eighteenth Amendment → Prohibition (1919)

• Nineteenth Amendment → Women’s suffrage (1920)

Why did WWI boost Prohibition? →

• Anti-German brewery sentiment

• Call to ration grain

• Linked alcohol to social decline

What was the Volstead Act? →

• Enforced Eighteenth Amendment

• Banned production & sale, not drinking

• Allowed use for religious rituals

When did the Eighteenth Amendment take effect? →

One year after WWI ended (ratified Jan. 1919, enforced in 1920)

What made enforcement difficult? →

• Public opposition & demand

• Abuse of medical whisky prescriptions

• Rise of organized crime (e.g. Al Capone)

When was Prohibition repealed?

1933, with the passage of the Twenty-first Amendment