IB Psychology, Research Methodology

Quantitative research

Type of research where data collected is numbers -- considered a more trustworthy type of research, more likely to help identify a cause-effect relationship

Qualitative Research

Type of research where data collected is words (via self-reports, case studies, or observations)-- data is therefore considered more subjective, less likely to point towards any kind of cause-effect relationship

Correlational studies

Type of quantitative research designed to determine whether or not a relationship exists between two variables -- if one is present, is the other? DOES NOT show cause-effect relationship, though

Laboratory experiment

Type of quantitative research -- conducted in a controlled setting, and where one or more participant groups are exposed to an independent variable the researchers are studying the effect of

Field experiment

Type of quantitative research -- conducted in a more natural setting, outside a laboratory; higher ecological validity, but confounding variables more likely to be present (so, less control)

Quasi-experiment

Type of quantitative research -- follows the form of an experiment, but researchers cannot randomly assign participants to control/experimental conditions, as the IV is "part of" the experimental condition already (e.g., experiment studying the impact of cancer on memory; some participants ALREADY HAVE cancer, some don't)

Self-report

Type of qualitative research -- participants provide subjective information about their own thoughts, feelings, or behaviors, typically via survey or interview

Case study

Type of qualitative research -- one individual or group is studied in depth, in the hope of revealing universal principles about all humans

Observation

Type of qualitative research -- observing participants and systematically recording how they behave, in order to gain valuable data that's valid/"true to life"

Aim

The purpose or intention of the research study

Procedures

The "action steps" taken by researchers and participants to carry out the research -- includes the specific task participants are asked to do, in an experiment

Target population

Specific group of people whose behavior the researchers want to investigate (e.g., "American women")

Findings

The researcher's report concerning factual data he/she/they collected

Conclusions

The researcher's synthesizes and interprets the findings, including giving his/her/their opinions on what the findings mean

Sample

The people within the target population who are chosen to actually participate in a study

Representative sample

THE GOAL of a good sampling method -- a sample that accurately represents a population, in terms of ethnicity, gender, etc.

Random sampling

Type of sampling where every member of the target population has an equal chance of being selected -- "putting all the names in the hat" -- best way to quickly and cheaply obtain a sample that accurately represents the target population

Opportunity sampling

A.k.a. convenience sampling -- using whoever happens to be present (and agrees) as the participants -- easy, but less likely to accurately reflect target population (= lower validity of results)

Self-selected sampling

A sampling method which uses only those who volunteer, typically through advertisements of some sort -- easy, but less likely to accurately reflect target population (= lower validity of results)

Stratified sample

This type of sample draws random samples from each subgroup (ethnic, gender, etc.) within the target population -- more representative = higher validity of findings, but expensive/time-consuming to gather

Sampling bias

When errors in gathering a sample result in an unrepresentative sample, resulting in the validity of the research's findings being questionable

Random assignment

Experimental procedure by which participants are put into control or experimental conditions randomly; helps control for participant variability

Validity

The degree to which a research study's findings are trustworthy, reflect reality, and so should be taken seriously in terms of explaining human behavior truthfully

Internal validity

Degree to which an experiment truly shows a cause-effect relationship between two factors (or whether some unaccounted-for confounding variables led to the results)

External validity

A.k.a. generalizability -- degree to which the findings of the study can be generalized to people outside the study's participant group (other genders, other cultures, other age groups, etc.)

Ecological validity

The degree to which either the ENVIRONMENT in which an experiment takes place, or the TASK participants are asked to perform, are artificial, not environments/tasks people normally are in/do -- if EV is low, then the validity of the study's findings can be questioned

Construct validity

When designing a study aimed to investigate an abstract concept or theory (e.g., "intelligence," "schema"), the degree to which the construct itself is clearly defined and (therefore) measurable?

Reliability

The extent to which a study yields consistent results, whether run at different times, or by different researchers

Experimental hypothesis

Predicts the relationship between the IV and the DV

Null hypothesis

Predicts that there will be no difference between the control and experimental conditions, or that any differences result will be due to chance

Independent variable

The variable that the researcher is looking to find the effect of, that he/she deliberately manipulates

Dependent variable

The variable that is being measured after the manipulation of the independent variable

Operational definitions

Very descriptive/clear definitions of the IV and the DV, in order to allow for easy future replication by others

Control condition

The group or condition in which the IV has NOT been introduced

Confounding variable

Variable that is not expected, and therefore not controlled for, by the experimenter; could affect the validity of the study's findings

Experimental condition

The group or condition in which the IV HAS been introduced

Demand characteristics

Poorly-designed aspects of a research study that lead participants to try to guess the aims of the study and then act accordingly -- can make results less valid

Participant variability

The extent to which the participants may share a common trait/set of traits, which could bias the results of the study (e.g., without researchers knowing, all participants are genetically predisposed to depression)

Single-blind control

Experimental procedure in which the participant does not know the aim or purpose of the experiment; aimed at reducing demand characteristics

Double-blind control

Experimental procedure in which neither the participants or the person conducting the experiment know the aim or the purpose of the experiment; aimed at reducing researcher bias

Ethical guidelines in psychology (6)

Informed consent, deception, debriefing, right to withdrawal, confidentiality, protection from harm

Informed consent

Permission was given from the participant, agreement to be apart of the experiment

Deception

When participants do not know the aim of the experiment -- can be used, so long as participants are debriefed afterwards

Debriefing

Takes place after the experiment - researchers explain the aim, purpose, method, and results to the participants

Right to withdraw

Ability of participants to decide to no longer be a part of a study, and/or to not have their results used in evaluation

Confidentiality

Researchers must keep participants' identities anonymous

Correlation

Research methods that examines relationships between variables in order to analyze trends, test prediction, evaluate theories, and suggest new hypotheses

generalizability theory

a sophisticated approach to the question of reliability that simultaneously considers all types of error in reliability estimates

stratified sampling

a variation of random sampling; the population is divided into subgroups and weighted based on demographic characteristics of the national population

Expectancy effects (experimenter bias)

Expectations about how participants should respond, these expectations can in turn bias the results. May occur whenever the experimenter knows which condition the participants are in. Experimenter might unintentionally treat participants differently in the various conditions of the study. Bias can occur when experimenters record the behaviors of the participants; there may be subtle differences in the way the experimenter interprets and records the behaviors.

Reactivity in Experiments

There is the risk that people do react to being observed.

Screw you effect

Occurs when a participant attempts to figure out the researcher's hypotheses, but only in order to destroy the credibility of the study.

social desirability effect

This is when participants react in a certain way because they feel that this is the "socially acceptable" thing to do - and they know that they are being observed.

optimism bias

a bias whereby people believe that, compared with other people, they are more likely to experience positive events and less likely to experience negative events in the future

internal validity

the degree to which changes in the dependent variable are due to the manipulation of the independent variable

construct validity

the extent to which variables measure what they are supposed to measure

researcher bias

a tendency for researchers to engage in behaviors and selectively notice evidence that supports their hypotheses or expectations

ecological validity

The degree to which a study finding has been obtained under conditions that are typical for what happens in everyday life.

Population validity

the extent to which results observed in a study will generalize to the population from which a sample was selected

interference effects

This is when the fact that you have taken part in one condition affects your ability to take part in the next condition.

fatigue effects

This is simply the fact that when asked to take part in several conditions of the same experiment, participants may get tired or they may get bored.

practice effects

improvement in performance resulting from opportunities to perform a behavior repeatedly so that baseline measures can be obtained.

The Aim of Baddeley et al (1975) experiment

To demonstrate that memory span is not based on the number of items that can be remembered, but on the time it takes to articulate the items.

The Design Bower et al (1969)

involved comparing the free recall of participants who were given words arranged in a hierarchical structure versus those who received the same words in a random, unorganized order.

The Evaluation of Bransford, J.D. & Johnson, M. K. (1972)

The study's strengths include its clear demonstration of the context's power, good laboratory control, and replicability. However, limitations include a lack of ecological validity due to the artificial task, potential influence of individual differences not accounted for, and an inability to confirm that the intended schema was indeed activated.

Coltheart (1992) analysis showed

Mean recall percentages for similar and dissimilar word lists are presented in Table 1. An ANOVA revealed significant effects of phonological similarity and list type on recall performance.

Carol Dweck's "Perils of Praise" implication of the study

praising innate ability ("you're so smart") can be detrimental to a person's motivation and resilience

Rosenthal & Jacobson (1966)

found that students whose teachers were led to expect greater intellectual gains showed significantly greater improvement in their IQ scores than other students.

Sigmund Freud's psychoanalytic theory

Early childhood experiences and unresolved conflicts shape personality, and mental health issues arise from internal struggles between these structures.

B.F. Skinner's behaviorist theory

Key to this theory is the idea that behaviors are strengthened by reinforcements (rewards) and weakened by punishers, with the goal of applying these principles to understand and modify human behavior in various fields like education and mental health.

Milgram experiment

The research investigated how far a person would obey an authority figure when instructed to perform acts that conflicted with their personal conscience.

Ethical Standards for Research in Psychology

Researchers must follow specific rules outlined in the Ethics Code to ensure participant safety and rights