CE02 Earth Structure and Composition

Earth Processes

phenomena of nature that take place both on and inside the planet's surface, gradually reshaping the terrain.

Endogenetic Forces

geologic processes that occur within
the Earth's crust, mantle, and core.

Exogenic forces

geomorphic processes that occur on
the Earth's surface.

Tectonic Activity

Movement of the Earth's plates causes earthquakes, mountain formation, and volcanic activity.

Volcanism

Magma from the Earth's interior erupts through the surface, forming volcanoes.

Weathering

The breakdown of rocks at the Earth's surface due to atmospheric and biological factors.

Erosion

movement of weathered materials by agents like water, wind, ice, and gravity.

Deposition

laying down of eroded material, creating new landform.

Endogenetic Forces

Tectonic Activity
Volcanism

Exogenic forces

Weathering
Erosion
Deposition

Mechanical Weathering

Breakdown of rocks into smaller pieces without chemical change.

Frost wedging
Thermal expansion

2 Examples of Mechanical Weathering

Frost Wedging

Water enters cracks in rocks, freezes, and expands, causing the rock to break apart.

Thermal Expansion

Repeated heating and cooling causes rocks to expand and contract, leading to fracturing.

Chemical Weathering

Breakdown of rocks through chemical reactions, altering the minerals
within the rock.

Oxidation
Hydrolysis

2 Examples of Chemical weathering

Oxidation

Reaction of minerals with oxygen, causing rusting in rocks with iron content.

Hydrolysis

Reaction of minerals with water, leading to the formation of new minerals and weakening of the rock.

Biological Weathering

Weathering caused by the actions of living organisms.

Plant roots
Lichen and Moss
Animal Activity

3 Examples of Biological Weathering

Plant Roots

Roots grow into cracks in rocks, expanding them as they grow.

Lichen and Moss

These organisms produce acids that chemically weather rock surfaces.

Animal Activity

Burrowing animals expose rocks to the elements, increasing weathering.

Industrial Activities
Deforestation
Mining and Quarrying
Land Use Changes

4 Human Impacts on Weathering

Mechanical Weathering

Causes physical disintegration of building materials, leading to structural weakness.

Chemical Weathering

Alters the chemical composition of materials, leading to decay and degradation

Biological Weathering

Roots and organisms contribute to the weakening and breakdown of structures.

River

A ribbon-like body of water that falls down due to the earth's gravity that carry and
distribute important salt and nutrients.

"Life's Blood of Earth"

head-water

starting point where the water begins its flow

(PARTS OF RIVER)

Mouth

water flow goes straight onto big bodies of water like oceans and lakes

(PARTS OF RIVER)

Channel

path of the water

(PARTS OF RIVER)

River bed

lower level of the river which is normally found at sea level.

(PARTS OF RIVER)

"Life's Blood of Earth"
Home of Biodiversity
Home of the Community
Vital to People's livelihoods

4 Purposes of rivers

Dams and Other Barriers
Levees structures
Habitat Loss
Polluted Runoff

5 Problem Associated to the Process of the River

Dams and Other Barriers

Blocks migratory fish coming back to its spawning area which may cause of hindrance in their reproduction which decreases their population

Levees structures

might control flooding in one are but may increase flood risk in another.

Habitat Loss

Overused rivers can dry off before reaching the sea, and can eliminate important habitats.

Polluted Runoff

Human waste and contaminated water river from pesticides algae blooms that is toxic not only to the species living under the water but also a threat to human health

Erosion
Transporation
Deposition

3 Geologic Functions of the Rivers

Erosion

It is one of the most expressive elements of the river, which is turbulent with currents in every direction.

Attrition

This is caused by the rubbing of the particles carried by the river when they are thrown at each other.

Corrosion

In this process, water dissolves particles from the river's banks or bottom and carries them in solution.

Corrasion

This is the abrasive force that causes mechanical erosion of rocks by the sediments that the river brings.

Hydraulic Action

This is the force of fast-flowing river water that can remove objects from river banks and river beds, including loads that trap air in cracks and cause stones to break.

Attrition
Corrosion
Corrasion (Abrasion)
Hydraulic Action

The river erodes in four main ways:

Transportation

movement of material

Bed load

massive, and heavy rocks that mostly found on the river bed.

Suspended load

smaller sediments that are carried or suspended by water.

Traction

Requires most energy since the heavy materials are rolled over the river bed.

Saltation

The bouncing motion of sediments along the river bed.

Suspension

Small particles are carried or suspended in the water.

Solution

Some materials are dissolved and carried in solution.

Traction
Saltation
Suspension
Solution

4 types of transportation in rivers

Deposition

River drops its material.

Deepening the river valley
Lengthening or shortening of the river valley
Widening the river valleys

3 physical processes involved in the formation of river valleys

Stream Cycle Juvenile

This is the stage of high downward vertical erosion.

Maturity Stage

This is the middle course of a river where the gradient is gentler and the river valley
becomes wide

Meanders

derived from the river Meanderz in Turkey, which flows in loops.

Old Stage

In the last stages of the river just before it joins the sea or lake, the flow becomes gentle
as the slope of the river is considerably reduced. If it joins the sea, there are waves,
sea currents, and also change in the salinity of water.

Wind

movement of air over the surface of the earth.

Low Pressure System

when warm equatorial air rises higher into the atmosphere and migrates toward the poles.

High Pressure System

when cooler and denser air moves over Earth's surface towards the equator to replace the warm air.

Front

A boundary between two air masses

Coriolis Effect

Prevailing winds blow winds from a single direction over a specific area of the Earth.

Deflation

act of removing the loose particles of the earth from one area and forming depression.

Abrasion

process of impact of the coarse particles in the wind against formations like understanding rock and eroding them.

Sandstorms

describe an exceptionally strong wind, which picks up and carries a large amount of sand in the atmosphere.

Produced in the lower part of the wind

Dust Storms

carry much smaller particles, which can be carried higher and further than sandstorms.

Produced in the upper part of the wind

Sand dunes

formed by deposition of sand carried by winds.

Loess Deposits

first applied to the loose unconsolidated deposits found along the Rhine River extending to the Black Sea.

Sand dunes
Loess Deposits

2 Important Types of Deposits

Sea

smaller portion of ocean that is close to where the land and ocean meet.
Mostly enclosed by land.

Coastal Erosion

Usually happens when the movement of the water is in high waves and strong current.

Coastal Storms

it introduces new sediment to littoral system and spread pre-existing sediments over large body of shore.

Abrasion
Hydraulic Action
Attrition
Solution

(4) Formation of Coastline by Marine Erosion of Coastal Rocks

Beaches

These are formed by the deposition of sand and gravel along the coast.

Zone extending from low water sea level to the upper limit of high water.

Spits

long and narrow extension of the beach into the sea.

They are sand deposits formed by shore drifts.

Bars

long deposits of sand formed in the sea parallel to the shoreline.

Shoreline of submergence
Shoreline of emergence

2 Types of shorelines

Shoreline of submergence

shoreline characterized by bays, promontories, and other minor features, formed by the dominant relative submergence of landmass.

positive shoreline

Shoreline of emergence

A straight or gently curving shoreline formed by the dominant relative emergence of the floor of an ocean or a lake.

negative shoreline

Fringing Reefs
Barrier Reefs
Atolls

3 Types of Coral Reefs Deposited

Fringing reefs

Grow near the coastline around islands and continents

They are separated from the shore by narrow, shallow lagoons.

Barrier Reefs

Parallel the coastline but are separated by deeper, wider lagoons.

At their shallowest point, they can reach the water's surface forming a "barrier" to navigation.

Atolls

ring-shaped coral reef including a coral
rim that encircles the lagoon partially or completely.

Geomorphology

study of the Earth's surface features

Site Selection
Infrastructure Planning
Hazard Assessment

3 engineering application of Geomorphology

Geology

study of the Earth's materials and structure

Foundation Design
Tunneling
Resource Extraction
Earthquake-Resistant Construction

4 Engineering Application of Geology

Hydrology

study of water on, above, and below the Earth's surface

Water Resource Management
Flood Control
Wastewater Treatment

3 Engineering Application of Hydrology

Meteorology

study of the atmosphere and its phenomena

Infrastructure Design
Disaster Preparedness
Renewable Energy Development

3 Engineering Application of Meteorology