Bases of Human Behaviour, Sensation, Attention, Perception, and Thinking

Flashcards testing knowledge on human biological and cultural bases of behaviour, sensory/perceptual processes, attention theories, problem solving, reasoning, creative thinking, and language acquisition.

What is evolution according to the lecture notes?

Evolution refers to the gradual and orderly biological changes that result in a species from their pre-existing forms in response to changing adaptation demands of their environment, occurring through Natural Selection.

What are the three important features of modern human beings?

1. Developed brain (with capacity for cognition and behaviour), 2. Developed ability of walking upright (on two legs), 3. A free hand (with workable opposing thumb).

What is a neurone and what are its three fundamental components?

A neurone is the basic unit of the nervous system specialized for the reception, conduction, and transmission of electro-chemical signals. Its three fundamental components are the Soma, Dendrites, and Axon.

What are the functions of the Soma, Dendrites, Axon, and Terminal Buttons?

Soma is the cell body containing the nucleus and cytoplasm; Dendrites are receiving ends that receive neural impulses from adjoining neurons or sense organs; Axon is a single longer extension that relays info to other neurons or muscles; Terminal Buttons are points at the end of an axon that transmit signals to another neuron, gland, or muscle.

What is the 'all or none principle' of nerve impulses?

It states that nerve fibres either respond completely to a stimulus or do not respond at all.

What is a synaptic cleft?

The small gap between two neurons, as neurons are never physically connected to one another.

How is the Autonomic Nervous System divided and what are the roles of each branch?

It is divided into the Sympathetic Nervous System (arouses body to expend energy in flight or fight) and the Parasympathetic Nervous System (calms body to conserve and maintain energy in digest and rest).

What are the key functions of the Medulla Oblongata, Pons, and Cerebellum?

Medulla regulates basic life supporting and autonomic activities as the vital centre of the brain; Pons receives auditory signals and regulates respiratory movement, facial expression, and sleep mechanisms; Cerebellum controls posture, equilibrium, coordination of muscular movement, and stores movement memory.

What is the function of the Reticular Activating System (RAS) in the midbrain?

The RAS makes us active and helps us select information from the environment.

What are the main functions of the Hypothalamus, Limbic system, and Thalamus?

Hypothalamus regulates the internal body environment, physiological processes, and hormone secretion; Limbic system maintains internal homeostasis and consists of the hippocampus (long-term memory) and amygdala (emotional behaviours); Thalamus exchanges sensory signals between sense organs and cortex.

What are the functions of the four lobes of the Cerebral Cortex?

1. Frontal lobe: Cognitive functions and inhibitory effects on autonomic and emotional responses. 2. Parietal lobe: Cutaneous sensations and coordination with visual/auditory sensations. 3. Temporal lobe: Processes auditory information. 4. Occipital lobe: Processes visual information.

Which hormones are secreted by the Pituitary, Thyroid, Adrenal, and Pancreas glands?

Pituitary secretes Growth hormone; Thyroid secretes Thyroxine; Adrenal secretes Adrenaline; Pancreas secretes Insulin.

How do chromosomes determine gender at fertilization?

An Ovum carries 23 chromosomes (XX) and a Sperm carries 23 chromosomes (XY). The 23rd chromosome pair decides the gender.

What is the difference between Enculturation and Socialisation?

Enculturation refers to all learning that takes place without direct deliberate teaching simply due to availability in a cultural context. Socialisation is the process of mixing socially to acquire knowledge, skills, and dispositions to participate effectively in a group or society.

What are the four acculturative strategies based on attitudes toward heritage and host cultures?

1. Integration: Maintaining own heritage culture while engaging with host culture. 2. Separation: Maintaining heritage culture while rejecting host culture. 3. Assimilation: Following only the host culture. 4. Marginalization: Maintaining neither heritage nor host culture.

What is the difference between Absolute Threshold (AT/AL) and Difference Threshold (DT/DL)?

Absolute Threshold is the minimum/maximum stimulus value required to evoke a sensation; Difference Threshold is the smallest difference between the values of two stimuli necessary to notice them as different.

What is the difference between Selective, Sustained, and Divided Attention?

Selective Attention is selecting a limited number of stimuli from a large set; Sustained Attention (Vigilance) is maintaining concentration on an object/event for a longer duration; Divided Attention is attending to two different things at the same time.

How do Broadbent's and Treisman's theories of selective attention differ?

Broadbent's Filter theory (1956) proposes a selective filter allowing only one stimulus to pass to higher processing while blocking others. Treisman's Filter-attenuation theory (1962) proposes that non-selected stimuli are attenuated (weakened) rather than completely blocked, allowing some to escape to higher processing levels.

What is the difference between Bottom-up and Top-down perceptual processing?

Bottom-up processing begins recognition from individual parts to build the whole; Top-down processing begins recognition from the whole to identify its individual components.

How do Field Dependent and Field Independent cognitive styles differ?

Field dependent individuals perceive the external world in its totality (holistic/global manner); Field independent individuals perceive the external world by breaking it down into smaller units (analytic manner).

What are the seven Gestalt principles of perceptual organization?

1. Principle of Proximity, 2. Principle of Similarity, 3. Principle of Continuity, 4. Principle of Smallest, 5. Principle of Symmetry, 6. Principle of Surroundedness, 7. Principle of Closure.

What are Binocular Cues in depth perception, and what examples are listed in the notes?

Binocular Cues require both eyes for depth perception. Examples include Retinal/Binocular Disparity, Convergence, and Accommodation.

What is the Phi-phenomenon?

An apparent motion illusion experienced when motionless pictures are projected one after another at an appropriate rate (such as in a cinema show).

What are the three major obstacles to problem solving?

1. Mental Set (tendency to solve problems using already tried operations/steps), 2. Functional Fixedness (failing to solve problems because objects are seen only in terms of their usual functions), 3. Lack of Motivation.

What is the difference between Deductive and Inductive reasoning?

Deductive reasoning begins with a general assumption known/believed to be true and draws specific conclusions (general to particular); Inductive reasoning begins with specific facts and observations to draw general conclusions (particular to general).

According to J.P. Guilford, how do Convergent and Divergent thinking differ?

Convergent thinking solves problems that have only one correct answer by converging the mind toward it; Divergent thinking is open-ended thinking producing novel and original ideas from varied perspectives.

What are the four stages of the creative thinking process?

1. Preparation Stage (understanding and analyzing the problem), 2. Incubation (leaving the problem when stuck), 3. Illumination ('Aha!' experience), 4. Verification (testing and judging the solution).

How do Benjamin Lee Whorf, Jean Piaget, and Lev Vygotsky view the relationship between Thought and Language?

Whorf proposed linguistic determinism (language determines thought); Piaget proposed that thought determines language; Vygotsky proposed that language and thought have separate origins in children until around two years of age, after which they merge to produce verbal thought.

How do B.F. Skinner and Noam Chomsky explain language development?

B.F. Skinner (Behaviourist) argued language is learned through environmental responses/reinforcement; Noam Chomsky (Linguist) argued humans have an innate Language Acquisition Device (LAD) and Universal Grammar.