History Final Study Questions

What happened during the Pax Romana?

\-Roman rule brought peace, order, unity, and prosperity to lands stretching from the Euphrates Rover in the east to Britain in the west

\-Roman legions maintained and protected the roads, and Roman fleets chased pirates from the seas.

\-Trade flowed freely to and from distant lands

\-Trade caravans traveled along the Great Silk Road, bringing silk and other goods from China

\-People moved easily within the Roman empire

Why did the senate give octavian the title Augustus?

"exalted one"

\-declared him as princeps or the first citizen.

\-Romans hated the title of king since the Etruscan times.

\-Augustus still exercised absolute power and named his successor just like a king would

Reforms of Augustus

\-Prior to Augustus there are years of foreign and civil wars. Instability at home and in provinces.

\-Tries to restore morals of Rome with Adultery Law, restoration of public religion and patron-client system

\-Creates civil service, updates tax system, creates census and postal service. Public works and new coinage.

\-Professionalizes army and makes it loyal to the emperor, opens enlistment to provinces.

\-Defines borders of Rome, Creates peace in provinces, little interference, and reasonable taxes

\-Government jobs are based on meritocracy and keep nobility happy.

\-Negative is that as a Roman citizen, you no longer have political power. Rome has moved from a republic to an **autocratic** government.

How did Diocletian attempt to restore order in 284?

\-divided the empire into two parts.

\-Kept the wealthier east side under his control and established a co-emperor, MAXIMAN, to rule the weaker western provinces

\-fixed the prices of goods and services to slow inflation

\-other laws forced farmers to remain on their land.

\- Sons were required to follow their fathers' occupations.

An obvious cause for the Fall of the Roman Empire is military invasions. How were these attacks successful?

\-Roman legions of the later empire lacked discipline and training from which earlier Roman armies had benefited

\-Rome needed soldiers so they hired mercenaries, or foreign soldiers serving for pay, to defend its borders. Many were Germanic warriors, not Romans. Led to a continued loss of Roman values because these people did not feel any loyalty to Rome

How did the political problems of Rome contribute to its decline?

\-As the government became more oppressive and authoritarian, it lost the support of the people

\-Growing numbers of corrupt officials undermined loyalty

\-Frequent civil wars over succession

\-Rival armies battling for their commanders on the throne weakened Roman power

\*\*-dividing the empire when it was weak was a detrimental mistake that left the empire beyond repair. The richer East side did not help the struggling west.

How did the economic problems of Rome contribute to its decline?

\-To support the huge government bureaucracy and the military that ruled the empire, Rome imposed heavy taxes that burdened the people

\-As the wealth of the empire declined, over-taxed farmers abandoned their land and the middle class sank into poverty

\-reliance on the labor of enslaved people discouraged Romans from exploring new technology>>decline in Roman values

\-Rome, rich from its conquests, also lost a vital source of income as it lost territories

\-the Empire's population declined as war and epidemics swept the empire

How did the social problems of Rome contribute to its decline?

\-decline in values such as patriotism, disciple, and devotion to duty on which the empire was built

\-the upper class (once the leaders) devoted itself to luxury and prestige.

\-"bread and circuses"...free food given out at gladiator games led to decline in self-reliance

How did life change after the slow collapse of Rome?

\-people in Italy continued to live as much as they had before, under new rulers

\-many still spoke Latin and obeyed Roman Laws

Where did the Shang Dynasty rule?

**Yellow River Valley**

\-Capital in Anyang

\-controlled the North China plain and fought off nomads from the northern steppes and deserts

\- Princes and nobles loyal to the dynasty governed most the lands.

Social hierarchy of Shang China

Royal family + noble warriors

\------------

artisans and merchants

\-------------

peasants (majority)

Lives of Peasants in Shang China

\-lived clustered together in farming villages

\-all family members worked in the fields, using stone tools to prepare the ground for planting or to harvest grain

\-peasants had to repair the dikes (like a dam)

\-If war broke out between noble families, peasant men had to fight alongside their lords

John Calvin's book

**Institutes of the Christian Religion**

\-set forth his religious beliefs and provided advice on how to organize and run a Protestant church

How did China's economy grow during the Zhou period?

\-Iron tools replaced stone, wood, and bronze tools...farmers produced more food

\-peasants began to grow new crops, such as soybeans

\-some feudal lords organized large-scale irrigation works, making farming even more productive

\-Commerce expanded. Chinese began to use money, coins.

\-Merchants benefitted from new roads and canals organized by feudal lords

\-economic increase led to population increase.

\-People from Huang River heartland moved into central China

\-Feudal nobles also expanded their territories and encourages peasants to settle in the conquered territories.

Why did the Zhou rule end?

\-Zhou rulers were too weak to control feudal lords who ignored the emperor and battled one another in savage wars.

\-A new ruler who wanted to unite China came out on top (qin)

According to Confucius, what was a ruler's responsibility?

**To provide good government**

In return, the people would be respectful and loyal subjects. He taught that the best ruler was a virtuous man who led by example

How did Confucianism influence aspects of Chinese life?

\-Chinese rulers would base their government on Confucian ideas

\-only scholars educated in Confucian thought could become government officials

How did Confucian ideas influence social life?

\-the emphasis on filial piety bolstered traditions such as reverence for ancestors and the importance of family

\-reinforced the social hierarchy of inferior and superior while stressing the mutual duties of each

How did Confucius view the balance of the universe?

\-two forces of yin and yang

YIN - linked to Earth, darkness, and female forces

YANG - stood for heaven, light, and male forces

\*\*these forces were not in opposition

How is Daoism different from Confucianism?

Unlike Confucianism, Daoism was not concerned with bringing order to human affairs. Instead, Daoists sought to live in harmony with nature

Founder of Daoism

Laozi "old master"

What is yielding for Daoists?

Daoists rejected the world of conflict and strife. Instead they emphasized the virtue of yielding.

EXAMPLE

Water does not resist, but rather yields to outside pressure - yet it is an unstoppable force. In the same way, Daoists might give way in a conflict, only to return again, like water to their natural course

Daoists view of government and society

\-Many Daoists turned from the "unnatural" ways of society. Some became hermits, artists, or poets.

\-Daoists viewed government as unnatural and therefore, the cause of many problems.

\-To Daoists, the best government was one that governed the least.

How did the observation Halley"s comet lead to other discoveries?

\-they studied the movements of plants and recorded eclipses of the sun

\-helped them develop an accurate calendar with 365 and 1/4 days

Silk in China and its effect

\-Women did the laborious work of tending the silkworms and processing the cocoons into thread

\-only royalty and nobles could afford the luxurious silk robes'-became China's most valuable export

\-Chinese kept the process of silk making a secret for 100s of years

Chinese system of writing and its effect

isolated by geographic barriers, people in different parts of China often could not understand one another's spoken language, but they all used the same system of writing

The first books made by the Chinese

made under the Zhou

The earliest Chinese books included histories and religious works

What is the Book of Songs?

Among the greatest Zhou works

Collection of poems that address the lives of farming people, praise kings, or describe court ceremonies. The book also includes tender or sad love songs

Ruler of Qin Dynasty

Shi Huangdi or "first emperor"

How did Shi Huangdi centralize power?

\-abolished the old feudal states

\-divided China into 36 military districts, each ruled by appointed officials.

\-Inspectors, who were actually more like spies, checked on local officials and tax collectors.

noble families in Qin dynasty

forced to live in capital of Xianyang, where Shi could keep an eye on them, and divided their lands among the peasants who had to pay high taxes to support armies and building projects

How did the First Emperor promote unity?

\-standardized weights and measures and replaced the diverse coins of the Zhou with Qin coins

\-had scholars create uniformity in Chinese writing

\-workers repaired and extended roads and canals to strengthen the transportation system

\-required cart axels to be the same width so that wheels could run in the same ruts on all Chinese roads

Legalism

Based on the teachings of Hanfeizi.

A Chinese philosophy that was devoted to strengthen and expand the state through increased agricultural work and military service.

Hanfeizi's view of Confucianism

rejected the Confucian idea that people would follow the example of a good ruler.

Instead, he insisted that the only way to achieve order was to pass strict laws and impose harsh punishments

How did the view of legalism change from the Zhou to the Qin period

Zhou - many feudal rulers chose Legalism as the most effective way to keep order

Qin - Shi Huangdi made it the official policy of the Qin government

legalism after Qin

Shi Huangdi's law were so cruel that later generations despised Legalism.

Yet legalist ideas survived in laws that forced people to work on government projects and punished those who shirked their duties

Shi Huangdi towards his critics

jailed, tortured, killed, or enslaved many who opposed his rule.

Hardest hit were the feudal nobles and Confucian scholars who loathed his laws

Why did the Great Wall become a symbol to the Chinese people?

it divided and protected their civilized world from the nomadic bands north of the wall

Qin dynasty after Shi Huangdi's death

anger over heavy taxes, forced labor, and cruel policies exploded into revolts.

Liu Band, an illiterate peasant leader, defeated rival armies and founded the new Han dynasty. Like earlier Chinese rulers, Liu Bang claimed the Mandate of Heaven

How did emperor Wudi improve Han China?

\-strengthened the government and economy

\-chose Confucian men of "wisdom and virtue" as officials

\-To train scholars, he set up an imperial university at Xi'an

\-boosted economic growth by improving canals and roads

\-set up granaries across the empire so the government could buy grain when it was abundant and sell it at stable prices when it was scarce

\-reorganized finances and imposed a government monopoly on iron and salt.

expansionism

expanding a country's territory

\-Wudi led an endless campaign to secure and expand China's borders. Fought many battles to drive nomadic peoples beyond the Great Wall

Purpose of silk roads

opened China to the West

new foods such as grapes, figs, etc flowed into China from western Asia

Items from India and Central Asia traded into China

sent large quantities of silk westward to fill a growing demand for the prized fabric

importance of the silk road

\-contributed to the economic prosperity of the Han empire

\-important cultural exchanges also took place bc ideas as well as goods traveled along the silk road

\-missionaries and traders carried Buddhism from India into China. Daoism traveled west out of China into Central Asia and beyond. Later, the religion of Islam was carried eastward from the Middle East

\-Cultural influences spread. poetry, dances and music, and inventions, such as the stirrup, traveled westward

What was a scholar-official and what was he expected to do?

Confucian scholars ran the many departments in the huge government bureaucracy.

A scholar-official was expected to match the Confucian ideal of a gentleman.

He would be courteous and dignified and possess a thorough knowledge of history, music, poetry, and Confucian teachings

civil servants

Han emperors adopted the idea that civil servants, or government officials, should gain their positions by merit, rather than through family background.

How civil servants were tested

set up a system of exams

studied Confucian classics, a collection of histories, poems, and handbooks on customs that Confucius was said to have compiled.

In theory, any man could take the exam.

Why were women excluded from government jobs in Han China?

Confucian teachings about filial piety and the superiority of men prevented women from taking the civil service exam.

Why did the Han Empire fall?

\-court intrigues undermined emperors who could no longer control powerful warlords.

\-canals and roads fell into disrepair

\-natural disasters showed the anger of heaven

\-heavy tax burdens and debt led to peasant revolt

What happened to China after the Han Empire?

China broke up into separate kingdoms. Invaders poured over the Great Wall and set up their own states. These newcomers were absorbed into Chinese civilization

Impact of the Han Empire

\-forged a vast and varied land into a united China

\-set up patterns of government, based on Confucian ideas that would survive for 2,000 years

\-Han China influenced East Asia as Confucian ethics spread across most of East Asia and dominated Chinese government and culture

Why was Buddhism a culture shock to China at first?

\-Chinese tradition valued family loyalty, while Buddhism honored monks and nuns who gave up the benefits of family life for a life of solitary meditation

\-Chinese language had no word for an unfamiliar concept like nirvana

Why did Buddhism become popular in China

\-the promise of escape from suffering. Mahayana Buddhism offered the hope of eternal happiness and presented the Buddha as a compassionate, merciful god

\-Neither Daoism nor Confucianism emphasized this idea of personal salvation

\-Buddhism absorbed Confucian and Daoist traditions

Significance of Emperor of the Romans

\-Pope Leo III asked Charlemagne for help against rebellious nobles in Rome.

\-Xmas day 800, pope showed gratitude by placing a crown on Charlemagne's head and proclaiming him Emperor of the Romans

\-A Christian pope had crowned a Germanic king successor to the Roman emperors.

\-Pope revived the ideal of a united Christian community, which came to be Christendom

\-Pope's actions outraged the eastern Roman Emperor. Byzantine emperor saw himself as the sole Roman ruler.

\-Crowning of Charlemagne would deepen an already growing split b/t eastern and western Christian worlds

\*\*The crowning sowed the seeds for a long and desperate power struggle b/t later popes and Germanic emperors

How did Charlemagne influence a Christian Empire?

\-worked closely with the Church to spread Christianity to the conquered peoples on the fringes of his empire

\-missionaries won converts among the Saxons and Slavs

How did Charlemagne influence a unified Empire?

\-appointed powerful nobles to rule local regions and gave them land so they could offer support and supply soldiers for his armies

\-to keep control of these provincial rulers, he sent out officials called missi dominici to check on roads, listen to grivances, and see that justice was done

Why did Charlemagne revive Latin learning?

he hoped to make his capital at Aachen a "second Rome."

Education in Charlemagne's empire

\-education served to strengthen his empire as he saw the need for records and clear reports

\-Charlemagne set up a palace school and brought scholars there

\-run by famous scholar Alcuin of York

\-These, scholars were set to work copying ancient manuscripts including Bible and Latin works of history and science

Charlemagne's Legacy

\-extended Christian civilization into northern Europe

\-furthered the blending of Germanic, Roman, and Christian traditions

\-set up a system for strong, efficient government

\-later medieval rulers looked to his example when they tried to strengthen their own kingdoms

Who was Francesco Petrarch?

an early Renaissance humanist from Florence

\-hunted down and assembled a library of Greek and Roman manuscripts

\-the speeches of Cicero, the poems of Homer and Virgil, and Livvy's History of Rome became known to Western Europeans

\-also wrote poetry. Sonnets to Laura are love poems

\-Petrarch wrote in the VERNACULAR of ordinary people, as well as in Latin

Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519)

\-was an Italian artist considered the ideal Renaissance man due to his varied talents.

\-His interests included botany, anatomy, optics, music, architecture, and engineering. His sketches for flying machines and undersea boats resembled the later inventions of airplanes and submarines.

\-Leonardo's paintings, such as the Mona Lisa and The Last Supper , remain famous today.

Niccoolo Machiavelli

He was a Renaissance political philosopher, statesman, and writer

The Prince by Machiavelli

\-offered a guide to rulers on how to gain and maintain power. It combined his personal experience of politics with his knowledge of the past

\-did not discuss leadership in terms of high ideals, like Plato did. Looked at real rulers in an age of ruthless power politics.

\-stressed the ends justify the means. Urged rulers to use whatever means necessary to achieve their goals.

Calvin's belief on salvation

God alone predetermines who will be saved

John Calvin (1509-1564)

French theologian and lawyer

Influenced by the humanist philosphy of Erasmus, Calvin became involved with the Protestant movement while a student at the University of Paris. He later moved to Geneva, Switzerland, where he set up a theocracy. Calvin's interpretation of Christian doctrine is called Calvinism

Tetzel

Germanic priest set up a pulpit on the outskirts of Wittenberg.

With the approval of the pope, he sold indulgences to any Christian who contributed money for the rebuilding of the Cathedral of St. Peter in Rome/ Tetzel claimed that purchase of these indulgences would assure entry into heaven not only for the buyers but for their dead relatives as well

Martin Luther (1483-1546)

German monk and theologian who was the catalyst of the Protestant Reformation.

trained to become a lawyer, he changed his path, joined a strict order of the Roman Catholic monks, and studied theology.

Seeking to reform abuses within the Church. Luther challenged Church teachings with his 95 Theses. This led to his excommunication and the development of Lutheranism, the first of several Protestant sects

How printing press influence Luther's protest?

the 95 theses were easily printed and distributed throughout Germany and Scandinavia, prompting him to declare that "printing was God's highest act of grace."

Augustus

\-under Augustus, who ruled until AD 14, the Republic came to an end

\-laid foundations for stable government

\-helped Rome recover from its endless civil war

\-undertook economic reforms

\-added a census

\-set up postal service/made new coins

\-planned to extend Rome’s territory and empire

\-Under Augustus, Rome conquered Egypt to the southeast, northern Spain to the west, and parts of central Europe to the north. Roman soldiers also invaded Germany.

\-The government that Augustus organized functioned well for 200 years.

\-killed Julius Caesar

Pax Romana

“Roman Peace”

\-Roman rule brought peace, order, unity, and prosperity

\-Roman legions maintained and protected the roads during the Pax Romana

\-Trade flowed freely to from distant lands in Africa and Indie on the silk road

\-People also moved quickly within the Roman empire, spreading ideas and knowledge

Diocletian

\-was a Roman general who became emperor. TO make the government more effective, he divided the large empire into East and West and appointed a co-emperor

\-The emperor Diocletian wanted to restore order.

\-He divided the massive empire into two parts to handle better the challenge of governing it.

\-He controlled the wealthier eastern part for himself and appointed a co-emperor, Maximian, to rule the weaker western provinces.

\-Diocletian implemented laws to slow inflation and ensure the steady production of goods.

\-The reforms of Diocletian and Constantine had mixed results. They revived the economy, and by increasing the power of government, they helped hold the empire together for another century. Still, the reforms failed to stop the long-term decline. In the end, internal problems, along with attacks from the outside, brought the empire down.

Fall of Roman Empire

* The most obvious cause for Romes's decline were the many invasions.  
* Rome’s legions were not as strong or as loyal as they had been.  
* The government became more oppressive and corrupt.  
* Rome suffered from many economic problems; Roman citizens had to pay heavy taxes.  
* The Roman empire finally “fell” when Germanic invaders captured Rome and removed the emperor. 

Ancient Civilization in China’s Geography

* The earliest civilization in China grew along the Huang River.  
* This river carries loess that raises the water level.  
* People suffered from the river’s many floods.  
* The need to control the water likely led to the rise of government. 

Shang

* Kings ruled along with princes during the Shang dynasty.  
* The princes were probably the heads of clans, or groups of families with a common ancestor.  
* Shang warriors used leather armor, bronze weapons, and horse-drawn chariots. 
* invented writing, developed a stratified government, advanced bronze technology

Zhou

* The Zhou people overthrew the Shang and encouraged the belief in the Mandate of Heaven, or divine right to rule.  
* This idea later expanded to explain the dynastic cycle, or the idea that dynasties rise and fall according to the Mandate of Heaven.  
* If rulers became weak or corrupt, heaven would withdraw support, and dynasties would fail.  
* The Zhou established feudalism where lesser lords governed their own lands but owed military service and other support to greater lords.  
* Iron tools made farming better, and the population grew.  
* The Zhou dynasty ended when feudal lords would not stop fighting. 
* Feudalism: a system of political organization in which a vassal served a lord and received protection and land in return

Confucianism and Daoism made by who:

During the Zhou dynasty, two great thinkers emerged. They were Confucius and Laozi, known as the "Old Master." These thinkers greatly influenced Chinese civilization. 

Confucianism

1. Created a philosophy, or a system of ideas, about how to behave 


2. Named five key relationships for people 


3. Highest duty was filial piety, or respect for parents 
4. Han emperors made Confucianism the official belief system of the state
5. Confucianism: an ancient Chinese belief system, which focuses on the importance of personal ethics and morality

Daoism

1. Stressed that people should live in harmony with nature 


2. Encouraged looking beyond every day cares 


3. Stressed seeking the Dao, or “the way” 
4. Daoism: an ancient Chinese belief system which emphasizes harmony with the natural, balanced order of the universe

Chinese Achievements

1. The Chinese made progress in many areas during the Shang and Zhou periods.  


2. They developed a calendar, bronze-making, silk thread, and a system of writing.  


3. Later, a writing system evolved that included thousands of characters and was turned into calligraphy.  

Mandate of Heaven

\-The mandate of Heaven was Zhou’s idea to justify their rebellion against the Shang.

\-The Mandate of Heaven on the divine right to rule, was later used to explain the dynastic cycle/ the rise and falls of Dynasties.

\-This was favorable to dynasties with good government but if they didn’t have a strong government; it was believed heaven would withdraw its support.

veneration of ancestors

Veneration of Ancestors is when nobles and rulers would pray to their ancestors instead of Gods as service to their community.

Many thought it would be disrespectful for ‘common people’ to pray to Gods, so it became where the Chinese would practice “Ancestor worship”.

Daoism ideals

\-Those being to find harmony with nature.

\-Daoism was more concerned with bringing order within nature rather than to human affairs.

\-Daoists also turned away from all ‘un-natural’ ways of society.

\-Daoism continued those ideals of, the natural world being important even as a religion.

\-They started to focus on Gods, Goddesses, and magical practices but still focused on the natural side of life, too.

\-Daoist ideas influenced everyone from nobles and scholars to the poorest of Peasants.

Shi Huangdi

1. He proclaimed himself Shi Huangdi, or “First Emperor” at age 13 


2. Using spies, loyal generals, and bribery, he removed the leaders of six other surrounding states to create a unified China under his authoritarian rule. 


3. However, the unified China he created was too dependent on Shi Huangdi, and the Qin dynasty collapsed four years after his death.  

Han Dynasty

1. Wudi made Confucianism the official belief system of the state, improved transportation, controlled prices, and created a government monopoly on iron and salt.  


2. He also opened the Silk Road, bringing new goods and ideas to China. 


3. Confucian scholars were chosen for government jobs based on their knowledge of the Confucian Classics. 


4. As the Han dynasty aged, emperors could no longer control warlords, or local military rulers; the peasants rebelled, and the last emperor was overthrown 


5. The Han dynasty was a golden age for Chinese culture where artisans created products from jade, ceramics, bronze, and silk, and poets and historians wrote about the great Han cities.  


6. Han China was also the most technologically advanced civilization in the world. The Han invented many things we use today.  

Silk Road

1. The Silk Road was opened by Wudi to link China and the West for centuries, bringing new foods from Western Asia, horses from Central Asia, and muslin cloth from India. Chinese sent large quantities of silk westward to fill a growing demand. 


2. The Silk Road was a network of intersecting trade routes linking China to the Middle East, with goods being relayed in stages from one set of traders to another. From the Middle East, goods were sent across the Mediterranean to Rome. 


3. Trade along the Silk Road contributed to the economic prosperity of the Han Empire, as well as cultural exchanges. Missionaries and traders brought Buddhism, Daoism, and Islam eastward from the Middle East. 


4. Cultural influences spread along the trade route, including Turkish folk tales, Central Asian harpists and dancers, and Chinese inventions. 

Buddhism

1. Missionaries and merchants spread Buddhism from India to China.  


2. Buddhism became increasingly popular during times of crisis due to its emphasis on family loyalty, monks, nuns, and the idea of nirvana. 


3. Large Buddhist monasteries became key centers of learning and the arts. 

Charlemagne

\-“Charles the Great”

\-king of the Franks, the Lombards

\-emperor of the Romans

\-began as a warrior king seeking to conquer territory and distribute plunder in the Frankish tradition. But he also strove to unite and govern an increasingly diverse collection of conquered peoples as well as cope with threats from new invaders. He conducted a long series of successful military campaigns, made efforts to spread Christianity and implement religious reform, sought to make more effective inherited political institutions and procedures, and supported cultural renewal through a revival of learning.

Explain the causes of the population growth that occurred between roughly 1000 and 1300 AD.

Between 1000 - 1300 AD, a large population increase occurred. The cause of this was the production of food being up. With peasants using iron plows rather than wood, work happened much faster. Also more land was being used than before. Peasants would use 2/3s of their land rather than half. This meaning more food would came into use quicker. With more food available, more people came there (population increase).

Discuss the positive and negative impacts of the Crusade.

Positive:

* quickened economic and political changes
* Europeans developed taste for luxuries
* increased level of trade
* ^encouraged growth of economy
* peasants pay rent in money rather than labor
* peasants began to sell goods to earn money
* helped increase power of monarchs
* papal power to its greatest height

\
Negative:

* failed to conquest land
* left religious hatred
* both Christians and Muslims committed awful crimes
* angry with Jews - killing them
* lots of death

The Magna Carta was important because it established

\
the principle that the monarch must obey the law.

Why did the Renaissance begin in Italy and not some other European area?

\-Florence and Venice were already thriving in trade and Manufacturing making it a great place for the Renaissance to begin

\-Considering Italy thrived during the Middle Ages, it was a great place for it to begin.

\-the geography of Italy made it easy for trade to happen. Being surrounded by water resulted in trade ships bringing in and out luxuries.

\-It also helped that the trading boats found ancient texts that were lost and had many wealthy merchants in Italy at the time.

The Prince

\-Machiavelli wrote a guide to rulers on how to gain and maintain power called, the prince.

\-It featured his own personal experience as well as knowledge of the past.

\-It discussed leadership in terms of high ideals unlike Plato had.  Rather, it looked at real rulers in an age of Ruthless power politics.

\-Machiavelli stressed ruler should use whatever methods they saw necessary to achieve their goals. 

\-Because of all of the claims made in his book, critics attacked his cynical advice while he saw himself as an enemy of Oppression and Corruption.

\-This later helps students of government argue that Machiavelli provided a realistic look on politics.

Petrarch

\-lived in Florence and was an early Renaissance humanist, poet, and scholar.

\-He assembled a library of Greek and Roman manuscripts gathered from monasteries and churches, helping to preserve these classic works for future generations.

Leonardo da Vinci

\-was an Italian artist considered the ideal Renaissance Man due to his very talents.

\-His interests included botany, Anatomy, Optics, music, architecture, and Engineering. His sketches for flying machines and undersea boats resembled the later inventions of airplanes and submarines.

\-Leonardo's paintings, such as the Mona Lisa and the Last Supper, remain famous today.

Machiavelli

\-was born in Florence.

\-He was a Renaissance political philosopher, Statesman, and writer. 

\-His most famous work was a guide for rulers on how to gain and keep power. The prince was realistic about political power.

\-Machiavelli argued that the end justified the means in politics. The term "Machiavellian" is still used today to describe deceitful politics.

John Calvin

\-Was a French theologian and lawyer.

\-Influenced by the humanist philosophy of Erasmus, Calvin became involved with the Protestant movement while a student at the University of Paris.

\-He later moved to Geneva, Switzerland, where he set up a theocracy and wrote Institutes of the Christian religion.

\-Calvin's interpretation of Christian doctrine is called Calvinism.

Martin Luther

\-Was a German Monk and theologian who was the catalyst of the Protestant Reformation.

\-Train to become a lawyer, he changed his path, joint a strict order of Roman Catholic monks, and studied theology.

\-Seeking to reform abuses within the church, Luther challenged Church teachings with his 95 Theses.

\-This led to his excommunication and the development of Lutheranism, the first of several Protestant sects.

Johann Tetzel

\-goes to far with selling indulgences

\-”As soon as coin hits the box, you’re free from sin”

\-Dominic

\-Pushing beyond where things should be

Printing Press

J-ohannes Gutenberg printed a complete edition of the Christian Bible. 

\-He developed his own, more durable metal type and combined it with a printing press, a machine that allowed fast production of printed pages. 

\-With the Gutenberg Bible, the European age of printing had begun. Within a few years, printing presses using Gutenberg’s technology sprang up in Italy, Germany, the Netherlands, and England.

\-By 1500, according to some estimates, 15 to 20 million volumes had been produced on new printing presses.

reformers prior to Martin Luther

\-John Wycliffe didn't approve some of the church's doctrines. He attacked corruption in the church and is best remembered for supporting the translation of the Bible, which caused quite a lot of conflict.

\-John Hus, like John Wycliffe, believed Christians should be allowed to read the Bible in their own language. He rejected Church teachings which then resulted in his death, burning at the stake.

Why did people support Luther’s ideas?

\-Firstly, the clergy saw his reforms as the answer to corruption in the Roman Catholic church.

\-Secondly, some people saw Lutheranism as a way to throw off the rule of the church and the Holy Roman Emperor.

\-Thirdly, many welcomed it as a chance to seize the valuable Church property in different territories.

\-Lastly, some Germans supported Luther's ideas because they didn't enjoy German money going to churches in Italy.