Intro to Psychology Final

What is action potential?

The shifting change in charge that moves down the axon.

What does it mean that the action potential is all or nothing?

Sodium leaks in and changes the potential across the membrane causing target to reach 0mV, or sodium pumps push ions out as soon as they leak in and cell stays at rest

What do ion channels (“voltage gates”) and sodium pumps do, and how are they different?

Ion channels allow ions to flow in and out of the neuron during action potentials. Sodium pumps maintain resting state by transporting sodium ions out of the cell. The main difference is that ion channels are passive and respond to voltage changes, whereas sodium pumps require energy to function.

How do spatial and temporal summation work?

Spatial summation involves signals that are received close together in space on the postsynaptic neuron. If signals arrive simultaneously or near-simultaneously at different dendrites or different locations on the cell body, their effects can add up. Temporal Summation involves signals that are received close together in time. If a neuron receives several signals in rapid succession from the same source or multiple sources, their effects can add up.

What are four things that can happen to neurotransmitters that are released into the synapse?

1.) Reception which involves binding to receptors on the postsynaptic neuron. 2.) Reuptake, where neurotransmitters go back to synaptic vesicles in pre-synaptic neuron 3.) Autoreception involves the neurotransmitter landing on a receptor site on the terminal end of the pre-synaptic neuron, always inhibitory 4.) Degradation (enzyme deactivation) involves neurotransmitter being broken down by enzymes which limits active time.

Describe the transmission of a signal from one neuron to the next: Synapse

Where an axon of one neuron sends a signal to the membrane of another neuron, the action potential reaches the end of the axon, synaptic vesicles release neurotransmitters into synaptic cleft, and neurotransmitters bind to receptors, and the action potential is transmitted.

Describe the transmission of a signal from one neuron to the next: Synaptic vesicles

They serve as storage units for neurotransmitters within the presynaptic neuron's terminal buttons. Upon the arrival of an action potential, these vesicles release their contents into the synapse, allowing the chemical signal to potentially influence the state of the postsynaptic neuron by binding to its receptors, initiating the next step in neural communication

Describe the transmission of a signal from one neuron to the next: Neurotransmitters

Released from synaptic vesicles into the synapse upon the arrival of an action potential, serve as the chemical messengers that carry the signal from one neuron to the next by interacting with receptors on the postsynaptic neuron, thereby influencing its likelihood of firing

Describe the transmission of a signal from one neuron to the next: Receptor sites

On the postsynaptic neuron (and sometimes the presynaptic neuron) are the target structures that bind with specific neurotransmitters released from synaptic vesicles, translating the chemical signal across the synapse into a change in the postsynaptic neuron's membrane potential by affecting its voltage gates, thus influencing whether it will fire an action potential

Describe the transmission of a signal from one neuron to the next: Pre- and post-synaptic neurons

Presynaptic neuron transmits a chemical signal (neurotransmitter) across the synapse, and the postsynaptic neuron receives this signal via specific receptor sites, translating it into an electrical change that influences whether it will generate its own action potential. The presynaptic neuron can also regulate its own firing through auto receptors.

Describe the transmission of a signal from one neuron to the next: Excitatory and Inhibitory connections

Excitatory connections facilitate the flow of positive ions (primarily sodium) into the postsynaptic neuron, making it more likely to fire, while inhibitory connections restrict this flow, making it less likely to fire. The ultimate response of the postsynaptic neuron is determined by the combined effect (summation) of these opposing excitatory and inhibitory inputs received across its synapse

Describe the transmission of a signal from one neuron to the next: Sodium Channels

Sodium channels, as a type of voltage gate, are key players in the neuron's ability to generate and transmit electrical signals. They are regulated by changes in membrane potential (for action potentials) and by the binding of neurotransmitters at synapses, controlling the flow of sodium ions which determines whether a signal is propagated or inhibited in the neuron.

Describe the transmission of a signal from one neuron to the next: Summation

The process by which the postsynaptic neuron integrates the numerous incoming excitatory and inhibitory signals to determine whether or not to generate its own signal (an action potential).

Describe the transmission of a signal from one neuron to the next: Threshold

It serves as a gatekeeper. The postsynaptic neuron must receive enough excitatory input, summed together, to reach this critical voltage level. Only upon reaching the level will the neuron fully commit to generating an action potential and transmitting the signal forward to the next neuron in the chain.

What do receptor cells (sensory neurons) transduce? (From what to what?)

Specialized to respond to signals from sensory organs (notably the eyes, ears, the nose, the tongue, and the skin—for touch) and transmit those signals to other neurons in the brain or spinal cord

What do motor neurons do? What do they release at the neuromuscular junction?

Specialized to send signals from the brain and spinal cord to muscles in order to control movement (they also send signals to bodily organs, such as glands). They release acetylcholine, which triggers muscle contraction and movement^.

What parts of the nervous system are involved in the reflexive pulling of a hand away from a flame?

The sensory neurons detect the pain from the flame and send a signal to the spinal cord.

What is Broca's area, and where is it located?

Involved in speech production and language comprehension. It is located in the left frontal lobe.

Who was Phineas Gage, and what happened to his brain and his behavior? Where was the damage to Gage’s brain?

A railroad worker who survived a severe brain injury in 1848 when a metal rod penetrated his skull, damaging his frontal cortex. After the accident, his behavior changed dramatically, he became impulsive, irresponsible, and rude, indicating the frontal lobe's role in personality and decision-making.

What happens to memory function when there is substantial damage to the hippocampus? Which aspects of memory are affected, and which are not?

Damage impairs the ability to form new long-term memories (anterograde amnesia), particularly for explicit or declarative memory (facts and events). However, procedural memory (skills and tasks) and short-term memory are often not affected. Existing memories before the damage typically remain intact.

What is the corpus collosum, and why have some patients had it surgically severed? What were their impairments, under close inspection?

The large bundle of axons that connects the two halves of the brain can be severed in patients who struggle with sever epilepsy but may result in an inability to verbally describe objects presented to the left visual field because it is processed by the right hemisphere.
Difficulty coordinating the two hands, as each hemisphere controls the opposite side of the body, leading to disconnection in motor control.

What are the skin senses?

Touch, heat, cold, pain, heavy pressure, hair movement

What are the chemical senses? What do they respond to? How are they different from other senses?

Smell (olfaction) and taste, which rely on sensing the presence of specific chemicals and respond to chemicals to chemical molecules in the environment—odorants for smell and taste molecules for taste. They directly detect chemical substances rather than physical energy (like light or sound).

What is the activation-synthesis model of dreaming? What serves as the activation? Where does the synthesis take place?

The theory that dreams arise from random bursts of nerve cell activity that may affect brain cells involved in hearing and seeing; the brain attempts to make sense of this hodgepodge of stimuli, resulting in the experience of dreams. Activation comes from random signals generated by the brainstem during sleep, particularly in the pons. The synthesis occurs in the cortex, where the brain tries to interpret and organize these signals into a coherent narrative or dream.

What does an EEG measure? What did EEG’s reveal about sleep?

This records electrical activity by recording brain wave patterns.
Helping psychologist learn much about the brain, such as the fact that people go through distinct stages of sleep including REM sleep and non-REM sleep marked by different types of brain activity.

What is a sleep deficit? What are some hazards of a sleep deficit?

Occurs when a person consistently gets less sleep than needed for optimal functioning, leading to a sleep debt.
Hazards include: Impaired cognitive function (memory, attention, decision-making). Increased risk of accidents and injuries.
Weakened immune system. Mood disturbances, such as irritability and depression. Higher risk of chronic conditions like heart disease and diabetes.

How does natural selection lead to changes in gene frequencies over generations?

Individuals with gene-based characteristics that contribute to survival have more offspring, and over time those characteristics come to be widespread in a population.

According to Cosmides & Tooby (1997) what is the purpose of the brain, and how did it evolve?

The purpose is to produce neural circuits that guide behavior and decision-making in response to environmental challenges. These circuits evolved because they provided a selective advantage helping individuals survive and reproduce in their ancestral environment. The brain is often referred to as a "stone age brain" because it evolved in the context of the hunter-gatherer lifestyle of the Stone Age, not for modern environments,

How does the environment influence genes (over the long term) and gene expression (within a lifetime)?

Over the long term (evolutionary changes): Environmental pressures (like climate, food availability, and predators) can lead to natural selection these genetic changes accumulate, altering the gene pool of a population.
Gene expression within a lifetime (epigenetics): Environmental factors such as diet, stress, and toxins can influence gene expression without changing the underlying DNA.

Compare and contrast the endocrine system and the nervous system. What are key similarities and differences?

The endocrine system uses hormones for slower, widespread communication via the bloodstream; the nervous system uses neurotransmitters for rapid, localized communication via neurons. Both systems maintain homeostasis, but the nervous system responds quickly, while the endocrine system has longer-lasting effects

What are the roles of the sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions of the ANS? What is the organizing principle of each? How are they related to homeostasis?

The sympathetic division responds to challenges and prepares the body for action while increasing heart rate, inhibits digestion. The parasympathetic conserves energy for long-term functions while focusing on growth and repair and decreases heart rate, stimulates digestion both divisions help maintain homeostasis by balancing energy use and recovery.

Which gland is the “master gland?” Why is it called that? What part of the brain is it closely connected to?

The pituitary gland triggers other endocrine glands and regulates hormones closely connected to the hypothalamus in the brain.

What are some examples of teratogens? Why does timing matter in teratogenic effects? What are sleeper effects?

Alcohol, drugs, tobacco, certain infections, medications, and radiation. The effects depend on the stage of development, exposure during critical periods like early pregnancy can cause more severe harm. Sleeper effects are delayed consequences of teratogen exposure, where damage becomes evident only later in life and is not present at birth.

experience-expectant plasticity

Minimal requirements of environment for normal development during critical periods, and it adapts based on those experiences. Involves brain adaptation, occurs during critical windows

experience-dependent plasticity

How the brain development differs in different environments, allowing for learning and adaptation based on personal encounters. Involves brain adaptation, happens throughout life.

How does a newborn’s brain compare to that of an adult?

A newborn's brain is smaller, with fewer connections and less myelination compared to an adult's brain. It has a higher neuroplasticity, meaning it can rapidly form new connections. Over time, the brain undergoes growth and pruning to specialize and optimize its function.

What are the advantages of being born with an underdeveloped brain?

Allows for greater flexibility and adaptability to the environment. It enables the brain to develop and specialize based on specific experiences, which is essential for learning and adjusting to different surroundings after birth.

What is co-regulation in an attachment relationship?

The process where caregivers and infants mutually influence each other's emotional states, helping the infant regulate their emotions and behavior. The caregiver provides comfort, soothing, and support, guiding the infant toward emotional balance.

How do co-regulation and attachment fit into the concept of experience expectant plasticity?

The brain is pre-wired to expect emotional bonding and interaction with caregivers during critical periods.

What is the brain rewards pathway? How is it related to dopamine, the law of effect, and operant conditioning?

A system that reinforces behaviors by releasing dopamine, a neurotransmitter linked to pleasure and motivation. It relates to: Dopamine: The brain releases dopamine in response to rewarding stimuli, reinforcing behavior.
Law of Effect: Behaviors followed by rewards are more likely to be repeated.
Operant Conditioning: Behaviors are strengthened or weakened by consequences (reinforcement or punishment).

How do addictive drugs hijack the rewards pathway?

Stimulate the brain's reward pathway, causing an excessive release of dopamine. This creates intense pleasure, reinforcing the behavior and leading to compulsive use, as the brain associates the drug with reward.

What are the brain mechanisms of addiction? Why do people have increasing tolerances for most addictive drugs? Why do they have withdrawal symptoms?

Dopamine rewards increase desire for repeated use, desensitization causes the body to compensate by reacting less to the same dose, decreased production results in the body compensating by producing less, the brain adjusts to the drug, reducing receptor sensitivity or dopamine production, withdrawal symptoms provide punishment for ending use

What is habituation?

The learning that occurs when repeated exposure to a stimulus decreases responsiveness to that stimulus aiding survival by allowing organisms to focus attention on new, more important stimuli while ignoring irrelevant or constant background noise.

How does classical conditioning allow animals including humans to adapt to their environment?

Associating neutral stimuli with meaningful events, helping them anticipate and respond to environmental changes. This learning process prepares them for future situations, enhancing survival and behavior prediction.

Why are some species primed to associate smell with sickness, while others are not?

Because of evolutionary survival needs, using smell helps detect harmful substances, promoting avoidance of toxins and illness.

How are fears created through classical conditioning?

When a neutral stimulus is paired with an aversive event (e.g., loud noise or pain), causing the neutral stimulus to trigger a fear response.

How do young monkeys learn to be afraid of snakes, without actually having a negative experience with a snake?

Through observational learning. they watch others react fearfully to the stimulus, and then associate it with danger, even without a direct negative experience

What is the law of effect, and how does it explain the behaviors of Thorndyke’s cats, and Skinners “superstitious” pigeons?

Behaviors followed by positive consequences are more likely to be repeated, while behaviors followed by negative consequences are less likely to be repeated. Cats learned to escape puzzle boxes by repeating actions that led to freedom (positive consequence). Skinner's pigeons exhibited superstitious behaviors because they associated a random action with the delivery of food, thus repeating that action even if it wasn't the actual cause.

How does operant conditioning help us to adapt to our environment?

Reinforcing behaviors that lead to rewards and punishing behaviors that lead to negative outcomes, encouraging adaptive responses to the environment.

What are the three principles of behaviorism?

classical conditioning, operant conditioning, and observational learning

Compare and contrast learning and evolution. What is the role of the environment? What is the time frame?

Learning involves short-term changes in behavior based on environmental experiences. The environment shapes behavior through rewards, punishments, and associations. Evolution involves long-term genetic changes across generations, with the environment selecting advantageous traits. The time frame for evolution is much longer than learning.

What are the limits of sensory memory and short-term memory in terms of capacity and time?

Sensory memory has a high capacity but lasts only a few milliseconds to seconds. Short-term memory has a capacity of about 7 items and lasts around 15-30 seconds without rehearsal.

What is a typical strategy to prevent the decay of information in short-term memory?

Rehearsal—repeating the information to keep it active.

What are good strategies for more effective encoding into long-term memory? What do they have in common?

Rehearsal, making meanings and connections, mnemonic strategies, elaborative strategies, elaboration, visual imagery, and organization which allows the making of meaningful connections to enhance understanding and retention.

Why is there a primacy effect in list learning, according to the three-box model?

Items at the beginning of a list are encoded into long-term memory due to more time for rehearsal.

Why is there a recency effect in list learning, according to the three-box model?

The recency effect occurs because items at the end of a list are still in short-term memory and can be easily recalled.

What is spreading activation, and how is it related to priming?

When activating one memory node triggers related memories. It's related to priming because prior exposure to a stimulus makes related information more accessible, facilitating quicker recall.

Should you trust your most vivid memories? Why or why not?

No, they are often more distorted or influenced by emotions, leading to false or inaccurate recollections.

Why are we bad reasoners, from the perspective of valid formal reasoning?

We often rely on heuristics (mental shortcuts) rather than logical rules, leading to biased or flawed conclusions.

What do biases and heuristics make us good at?

Quick decision-making and problem-solving in everyday situations, often under time pressure or uncertainty.

How is informal reasoning different from formal reasoning?

Informal reasoning relies on experience and intuition to make decisions, while formal reasoning follows strict, logical rules and structures.

Why is a logically valid conclusion not necessarily true?

If the premises are false, even though the reasoning process is correct.

Why are phonemes better described as categories of sounds, rather than just as sounds?

Because they represent distinct units of language that can vary in pronunciation but still convey the same meaning.

What is the evidence that humans are "wired" for language?

Universal grammar across cultures, the ability of children to learn language quickly, and the presence of critical periods for language development.

Compare and contrast the Cannon-Bard theory, James-Lang theory and Schacter & Singer’s two factor theory of emotions

Cannon-Bard theory: Emotion and physical response occur simultaneously.

James-Lange theory: Emotion is the result of physical responses to stimuli.

Schacter & Singer's two-factor theory: Emotion arises from physical arousal combined with cognitive interpretation of the situation.

The James-Lange theory emphasizes the body's reaction as the primary driver of emotion, while Cannon-Bard suggests that emotional and physical responses occur independently. Schachter-Singer integrates both, stating that arousal is followed by cognitive labeling to form a specific emotion

What does Plutchik (2001) mean that emotions are chain reactions with feedback loops?

Each emotional response triggers further reactions, creating feedback loops that can intensify or alter the emotion.

Why might it be helpful to think of emotions as a set of correlates, rather than a “thing?”

Allows for a more flexible understanding, recognizing that emotions involve various physiological, behavioral, and cognitive factors that can vary across situations, rather than being fixed, singular "things."

What does homeostasis have to do with emotions?

Emotions help maintain homeostasis by triggering responses that regulate internal balance, like seeking food when hungry or escaping danger to ensure survival.

What is the difference between acute stress and chronic stress, and why do they affect the body differently?

Acute stress is short-term and activates the body's fight or flight response, while chronic stress is long-term and can lead to wear and tear on the body, causing health issues like heart disease or weakened immunity.

Besides the stressor itself, what determines whether people experience a stress response?

Activation of Sympathetic and endocrine response Diverting energy to deal with challenges, Increased alertness, heart rate & blood flow, Increased Glucose, decreased immune system

What is the vulnerability/stress model, and how does this explain why college students get sicker toward the end of a semester?

The model suggests that stress combined with individual vulnerabilities (like poor coping skills or health) increases the likelihood of illness. College students get sicker at the end of the semester due to accumulated stress and exhaustion, weakening their immune system.

What is the “tend and befriend” response, and how does it differ from “fight or flight?”

The "tend and befriend" response involves nurturing and seeking social support in stressful situations, particularly in females. It differs from "fight or flight", which focuses on defending or escaping danger.

How does stress affect the immune system? What does that have to do with cortisol and white blood cells?

Stress diverts energy away from immune system functions Cortisol slows down reproduction of white blood cells Lowers defenses against viruses and bacteria

Why is stress a good thing? Why was this an adaptive trait in our evolutionary history?

It mobilizes energy and enhances focus, helping us respond to threats. It was an adaptive trait in evolution, aiding survival during dangerous situations by activating the fight or flight response.

How do schemas and stereotypes guide our thinking about other people?

It helps us quickly categorize and interpret others based on past experiences, but they can lead to biases and inaccurate judgments.

What cognitive biases guide our causal attributions?

The fundamental attribution error (overemphasizing personal traits) and the self-serving bias (attributing success to oneself, failure to external factors) guide how we explain others' behaviors.

How does cognitive dissonance impact our attitudes?

Conflicting beliefs or behaviors cause discomfort, leading us to change attitudes or rationalize actions to reduce the discomfort.

How do stereotypes distort our perceptions of people and groups of people?

Oversimplifying and generalizing traits, leading to biased judgments and misrepresentations of individuals and groups

Who is likely to experience stereotype threat?

Individuals who are aware of negative stereotypes about their social group, particularly in situations where those stereotypes are relevant.

What experimental conditions create high stereotype threat and low stereotype threat?

High stereotype threat occurs when individuals are reminded of negative stereotypes, especially in difficult tasks, when group identity is highlighted, or when being evaluated ex: test generally shows gender differences.
Low stereotype threat happens when tasks are reframed positively, group identity is downplayed, social support is present, and evaluation pressure is reduced ex: test shows no gender differences.

How is stereotype threat related to the Yerkes-Dodson Curve?

It shows an optimal level of arousal for any task Stereotype threat is a source of arousal

What do social facilitation and social inhibition have to do with the Yerkes-Dodson Curve?

In familiar tasks, the presence of others enhances performance (social facilitation) at moderate arousal levels. In difficult or unfamiliar tasks, the presence of others can impair performance (social inhibition) when arousal is too high, following the curve's peak-performance pattern.

What aspects of situation increase conformity?

Group size is larger
Group is unanimous
Individuals feel insecure or lack confidence
The group has high status or expertise
The behavior is visible to others

What aspects of situation decrease conformity?

Group size is smaller
There is dissent or diversity in opinions
Individuals feel confident or have prior knowledge
There is anonymity

Compare and contrast informational conformity and normative conformity. What is the adaptive value of each?

Informational: Conforming on the belief or assumption that others have accurate information Normative: Conforming in order help us to be accepted or to prevent rejection Adaptive value: Informational conformity helps individuals make better decisions by relying on others' knowledge. Normative conformity ensures social acceptance, promoting group cohesion and cooperation.

Why has the trait approach been more useful for studying personality than the type approach?

It focuses on measuring personality along continuous dimensions (e.g., openness, extraversion), allowing for more flexibility and precision. The type approach categorizes people into rigid groups, which oversimplifies personality and ignores individual variation.

What are the big five personality traits, and what are the characteristics of each? Be prepared to match traits with descriptions.

Openness: Creativity, curiosity, and willingness to try new things.
Conscientiousness: Dependability, organization, and goal-oriented behavior.
Extraversion: Sociability, assertiveness, and enthusiasm.
Agreeableness: Compassion, cooperativeness, and trustworthiness.
Neuroticism: Emotional instability, anxiety, and moodiness.

How does social learning theory/social cognitive theory explain the development of personality?

Personality development through interactions with the environment. It suggests that behaviors are learned through observation, imitation, and reinforcement. Personal factors like thoughts and feelings also influence how individuals respond to situations, shaping their personality over time.

What is reciprocal determinism, and how does it help explain the development of personality traits?

We seek out experiences that we like and those experiences shape who we are. Personality influences experience, and vice-versa so, we shape our own traits through our actions, thoughts, and social surroundings.

What is the the Bio-Psycho-Social model of mental illness, and how would it explain anxiety disorders, depression, and schizophrenia?

The Bio-Psycho-Social model explains mental illness through three factors: biological (genetics, brain chemistry), psychological (thoughts, emotions), and social (environment, life stressors). For anxiety, depression, and schizophrenia, it suggests these disorders result from a combination of genetic predisposition, unhealthy thinking patterns, and environmental stressors.

According to Sapolsky (2003) how does cortisol influence the hippocampus and amygdala? What are the implications of changes to those brain areas?

Damage the hippocampus, impairing memory and learning, while it can enhance the amygdala, increasing emotional responses like fear. Changes in these areas can lead to memory problems, heightened anxiety, and difficulty regulating emotions.

How do they symptoms of various anxiety disorders reflect the goal of managing or gaining control over stressors?

Efforts to manage or control stressors, such as excessive worry (Generalized Anxiety Disorder), fear of specific situations (Phobias), or panic attacks (Panic Disorder). These behaviors are attempts to avoid or cope with perceived threats, even if they are disproportionate or irrational.

How are panic disorders related to classical conditioning? Why do symptoms become triggers?

A neutral stimulus can become associated with a panic attack, triggering anxiety in the future. Symptoms become triggers when the body's physical responses to panic (e.g., rapid heartbeat) are paired with certain situations, causing those situations to trigger panic attacks.

How is agoraphobia related to operant conditioning? How can simple learning explain why people are unwilling to leave their homes?

Avoidance of feared places reduces anxiety, reinforcing the avoidance behavior. Over time, this negative reinforcement makes people unwilling to leave their homes, as staying home reduces discomfort and reinforces the fear-driven behavior.

Besides a sad mood, what are the symptoms of depression?

Negative and / or irrational thoughts Lack of motivation, even for pleasurable activities Physical disturbances of appetite, sleep, lack of energy

How is learned helplessness related to depression?

Repeated exposure to uncontrollable stress leads to a learned response of doing nothing

What neurotransmitters are implicated in depression?

Lack of serotonin and / or norepinephrine, and dopamine

What is Sapolsky’s (2003) concept of a stress continuum?

Stress ranges from positive (eustress) to negative (distress), with different levels of stress impacting the body and mind. Short-term stress can be motivating, but chronic stress can lead to negative health effects.

What are some positive, negative and cognitive symptoms of schizophrenia?

Positive: Symptoms that were not present before the onset of the disease include delusions, hallucinations, disorganized and/or incoherent speech, disorganized or inappropriate behavior, movement disorders.

Negative: Things that are missing after the onset of the disease include, flat affect, lack of motivation, lack of movement, limited speech, poor hygiene and grooming.

Cognitive Symptoms: Poor executive control Lack of focus Working memory problems Difficulty with problem solving

How are delusions different from hallucinations?

Delusions: Beliefs held firmly despite evidence to the contrary Hallucinations: Perceptions in the absence of stimulation