pitttttt to peeeel 333333

why was Britain in such a bad position at this time?

1. Isolated in Europe - France had supported US during the war;

2. Other countries formed a league against Britain’s policy of interfering with their trade

(e.g. Russia, Austria, Prussia, Netherlands, Ottoman Empire)

3. France had close relationship with other countries.

eg.

Spain - via related Royal families (Bourbons)

Austria

Russia

Pitt’s foreign policy aims?

End isolation

Prevent Russia, Austria, France, Spain forming a “Quadruple Alliance”

Promote trade

Ensuring France did not control the Netherlands

Avoid war

what was Britain’s relation to the UP?

Pitt backed the House of Orange in the conflict in the Netherlands (United Provinces) against the Patriot Party.

CONTEXT: British foreign policy, 1783-89: The end of isolation

• Patriot Party in the Netherlands wanted the Netherlands to have a MORE INDEPENDENT POLICY (being anti-British)

• Britain had FAMILY links to the Netherlands (King William III of England)

• Britain had imposed trade restrictions on the Netherlands during the War of Independence

• Patriot Party was pro-French - a DEFEAT for the House of Orange in the CIVIL WAR would give France control over the Netherlands

• This would affect Britain’s trade links into Europe AND threaten British security

BUT: Pitt wanted to AVOID WAR - due to debt; wanted to improve trade

what did Pitt sign in 1785?

1785: Signed a Trade Treaty with the United Provinces

when was the Eden Treaty signed?

1786

explain the Triple Alliance situation?

• formed with Prussia and UP in 1788

• Willem V, stadtholder (ruler) of the UP was related to the King of Prussia- wife was Wilhemina

• Wanted Prussian troops to help crush the Patriot Party who had taken control of Amsterdam

• Patriot Party asked France to help

• Pitt: Risk of Civil War with France and Prussia backing each side

what did Pitt do in terms of his preparation?

• Give money and ammunition to the supporters of the House of Orange

• Aug 1788: signed an alliance with the UP and Prussia - Triple Alliance

• Prepared the British Navy for a possible French invasion of the Netherlands

BUT: he let the Prussians do the fighting - 20,000 Prussian troops intervened and the House of Orange was victorious.

what were Pitt’s successes in foreign policyyy?

• France had not been allowed to become dominant in the Netherlands/UP

• Trade treaties benefitted Britain because they provided markets for Britain's industrial goods

• Britain was no longer isolated - Britain had allies e.g. UP, Prussia

• Improved relations with France(Eden Treaty)

• Britain had avoided war

• Navy was expanded - key to protect Britain’s overseas empire (India, Caribbean)

what were Pitt’s limitations in terms of foreign policy?

• Russian expansion in Asia was a potential threat to British control of India

• Pitt’s support for Prussia was limited - unwilling to back Prussia’s desire for land in Eastern Europe - therefore there limits to how close this relationship could get))

• Patriot Party in the Netherlands did not disappear ———-potential for problems in the future

• France still had ambitions to take land in the Netherlands (note the events of 1792-95)

• French Revolution would change the situation again - presenting Pitt with new problems

HOWEVER, it could be argued that Pitt had achieved the aims he had set out to achieve

what’s the “Blue water strategy”?

• using naval power to maintain Britain’s

  power

What was British foreign policy to France in the early stages of the Revolution?

• Initial reaction: events in France not threatening. Pitt’s priority was to maintain peace.

why was the Policy of Neutrality maintained?

1. Louis XVI was a poor ruler (no need for Britain to intervene)

2. Had supported the Americans in the War of Independence

3. Britain transformed into a constitutional monarchy in the English Civil War + Glorious Revolution - France prob too

4. A new regime in France = good for peace and trade

5. Revolution could weaken France

7. War would be costly

8. War might create unrest at home, revolutionary ideas spreading to Britain

9. France had not broken any treaties or agreements

10. When France did go to war in April 1792, Prussia and Austria seemed big enough to defend themselves.

why was Russia seen as a greater threat compared to France?

• in 1789 Russia was expanding into Eastern Europe

• taking territory from the Ottoman Empire - Britain and Prussia combined to warn Russia off

• (but note: Pitt backed down due to lack of support in Parliament and within his own Cabinet)

When and why did policy to France change?

• because of the growing radicalism of the French Revolution:

-April 1792 - France went to war to defend the revolution - against Austria and Prussia

-September 1792 - France was declared a republic

November 1792: France declared support for all revolutionary movements abroad

Rise of the radical group - the Jacobins

• British fear of revolution spreading to Britain (Paine, English Jacobins, etc) was now very real

What triggered the policy change with France?

• 21 Jan 1793, Louis XVI executed

• 23 Jan 1793 - Pitt expelled French Ambassador

• Embargo **stopping of trade on British and Dutch shipping announced by France

• France invaded the Netherlands and would take control of the main river into Europe for Britain’s trade: the River Scheldt

when did Britain declare war on France?

• 11 Feb 1793

what were some key developments under Pitt?

• Formation of the First Coalition (1793) and its eventual collapse.

• Naval dominance and key battles (e.g., Glorious First of June, 1794).

• The financial strategies Pitt employed to sustain the war effort, including his income tax of 1798.

• Pitt’s diplomacy: attempts to create coalitions and alliances.

• Challenges faced, such as limited land victories and domestic unrest.

key events of 1797-1807:

Strengths of Britain’s conduct of the war 1793-1806

• naval success

• leadership

• avoid military engagement

• wealth + finance

• determination

what were the naval successes during war with France?

• Preparations were made pre-1793

• Britain had over 600 better ships; France less than 300

• Navy maintained embargo

• Prevented invasion

• Quota Acts, 1795 – provided recruits

• Investment in dockyards

• Dealt with naval mutinies of 1790s

what were the Leadership strengths?

• Lord Howe: 1794: Battle of the Glorious First of June - destroyed 22 French ships - key early defeat of France

• Lord Nelson won key victories:

Egypt, 1798 - Britain maintained control of eastern Med and thus traderoutes to Asia, especially India

Battle of Copenhagen, 1801 (Danes wanted to trade freely with France - Britain keen prevent this as Scandinavia = key source of wood)

Battle of Trafalgar, 1805 - defeat for France and Spain off the south-west coast

what were Pitt’s military successes?

• Pitt added to Britain’s overseas Empire - Caribbean and Asia Tobago, St. Lucia, Trinidad

• Support for allies in Europe came in other ways -

• 1793-1802 - known as “Pitt’s Gold”: £9mn given to Austria and Prussia;

• 1795 £4.6mn lent to Austria; much large amounts were given - post-1806

what were the finance strengths?

• Pitt had improved Britain’s finances significantly, 1783-1792 putting Britain in a strong position

• Britain had the benefit of an established banking system going back to the 1600s - the Bank of England was created in the 1690s

• By the 1780s the Industrial Revolution had begun and this benefited Britain

• The Empire also benefitted Britain financially as did its naval power - control of trade routes

• War was initially funded through loans, 1793-98

• From 1797, moved towards greater use of paper money

• Trebled indirect taxes

— 1799: introduced the first Income Tax - remained in place until 1816 - 10% on all incomes over £200; lower rate of tax for £60-200

• It never raised the 10mn expected but it did substantially increase the government’s income

what were Pitt’s determination strengths?

• Solid arguments e.g. in Parliament

• Perhaps uninspiring (e.g. compared to Churchill) but without mass media they were not aimed at a mass audience -

• aimed at MPs, peers, etc.

• Need for sacrifice

• Made the war about principles:

• “justice, humanity and religion”

Limitations of Britain’s conduct of the war 1793-1806

• Pitt unsuited to war. Was a reformer - especially of finance.

• Pitt entered the war with little idea of its size, scope or length - financial decisions early in the war were made on this basis. It took him time to readjust the financial strategy and move to Income Tax.

• Pitt’s government lack a clear overall strategy: Grenville (Foreign Sec) wanted to focus purely on

• France; Henry Dundas (Home Sec) wanted to focus on trade and colonies

• Forced to negotiate, 1796-99

• Naval mutinies of 1790s

• Supported ending the war in 1802 even if land was lost 1804-1806: maintained support for the war - despite his own poor health - however, this was insufficient to win the war

• Naval power insufficient to win the war

• Military campaign on land in Europe required

• Britain’s allies unable to win the war - divided, poorly led - Pitt failed to understand that Austria and

• Prussia were more concerned by their own self interests in eastern Europe e.g. carving up Poland

By 1806, was it clear that Pitt’s original foreign policy aims had been met?

• not really

• France dominated Europe

• France controlled the Low Countries (Austrian Netherlands and UP)

• Britain’s alliances - the Coalitions - kept breaking down Russia made peace with France in 1807 - it was now free to threaten

• Britain’s empire in Asia

• Trade was interrupted by war

what was the Continental System?

• In 1806, ban on British goods.

• European ports shut to British ships.

what was the Treaty of Amiens 1802 and how was it limited?

• it was a peace treaty signed with France

• but war began again in 1803

when did Pitt leave and return to office?

• left in 1801

• returned in 1804

what was the Battle of Trafalgar 1804?

• britain’s most famous naval victory

• made French invasion impossible

• it confirmed their naval supremacy

but what did Napoleon do before the Battle of Trafalgar?

• lol he decided on a land campaign that defeated all 3 of Britain’s allies

• (in the war of the Third Coalition)

what had happened by 1807?

• Russia, Austria and Prussia had all signed Peace Treaties

• so Britain was isolated again

how did Britain oppose Napoleon from 1803-1814?

• negotiated and financed coalitions of other European powers

• maintained a naval blockade against France, preventing other nations from trading w it + seizing france’s ships

• fought a naval war against the navies of france

• maintained a long war in spain, that france had taken over

explain Napoleon’s first abdication?

• after defeat in russia and spain, france was invaded

• so he abdicated in 1814 and was exiled to a Mediterranean Island (elba)

• escaped in 1815 and took control of france again → “Hundred Days” of power

• this was ended by a defeat from british+ prussian forces at Waterloo

what was the British strategy after Pitt’s death?

• continued to encourage coalitions - the Third Coalition of Austria, Prussia, and Britain

• war ended with an alliance between russia and france

• but power of royal navy prevented a french invasion

• negotiated alliances + subsidised a fresh anti-napoleon coalition

• these concerted actions lead by third coalition forces was too much and defeat for france in 1814

• policy of naval blockade continued (had the right to stop and search ships in enemy ports

how did britain win the Peninsular War?

• bulk of britian’s warfare was in portugal + spain

• PNSRW started in portugal as they refused to accept napoleon’s enforcement of the Continental System

• 1808: britain sent forces to Portugal to drive out french

• france relied on long lines of communication (but they were defeated)

• so napoleon brought fresh armies to spain, reinstating his brother on the throne

• under sir john moore the british forces managed to retreat to corunna and the navy evacuated them

• french failed to conquer portugal

who was castelreagh?

• an Irish peer

• became foreign secretary in 1812-1822 (suicide)

• negotiated alliances against Napoleon; therefore played a large part in his defeat

• leader of the HoC

what did castereagh generally do ?

• stability

• opposed radicalism , based his policy firmly on national interests

• x sentiment

what did casltereagh actually do?

1. made the complete defeat of Napoleon his priority

2. signed peace w/ the USA asap

3. maintaining policies of coalitions against France

4. aimed to maintain cooperation with/ other european countries to have a sense of lasting peace

what did casltereagh believe was the only way forward?

• taking vigorous action rather than negotiations

• to guarantee British security

• + its ability to trade freely

and USA?

• ended a war w/ the USA in 1814

why was the Treaty of Chaumont significant + when was it

• 1814

• showed his commitment by negotiating

• also financing the allies w a greater amount Britain had last contributed (£26mill)

• looked beyond the defeat of Napoleon and onto longterm cooperation

what was change in the war caused by

• Napoleon seemed vulnerable because

• losses in invading russia

• Britain on the other hand : military successes in Spain

• contribution of supremacy at sea

how did casltreagh prevent the breaking up of the coalition

• encouraging his allies

• striking British forces in Spain under Wellington 1813

• so invading france in 1814

-MORE CREDIBILITY TO BRITAINS LEADERSHIP)

how were Britains interests met by the end of the war

• British trading opportunities had increased

• threat from france much reduced

• balance of power in Europe maintained

• new kingdom of holland = good security

• naval supremacy confirmed

why did the congress of Vienna

• needed a way to ensure cooperation actually lasted

• and 1 dominant power wouldn’t control Europe

what did Britain gain from the congress of Vienna?

• valuable colonial possessions AS RETURN OF the investments made on allies during the war

  • e.g. naval bases

• france contained, no risk of trade/invasion

+it went back to a monarchy js like Britain again

which of castlereaghs aims were not achieved?

• was clear that the unity of great powers x last after france

• concerned about tara Alexander I in russia

• + his ‘Holy Alliance’ w/ Prussia and Austria

• (no more common interests, they wanted it to align with christianity )

who was canning + key difference

• George canning 1822

• become foreign secretary after casltreagh

-main difference was that c1 was more interested in keeping good foreign relations + wanted ‘congress system’ to continue

what was going on with Spain?

• russia, Prussia + france were going to intervene to restore monarchy in 1820

• castlereagh +austria said no cs he didn't want to extend French influence

• canning said no too but had no warm relations w/ austria

• so lost Austrian support , x stop French intervening

what was going on with South America?

• key concern of a frnaco-spanish American empire + france dominating one again (c2)

• 10% of British exports latin america

• c2 refused plans

• for Spain/portugal to regain control

• mainly wanted to extend profitable trade , came across as supporting new liberal nations

• c1 didn’t make drastic public statements about importance of liberty

what was going on with Portugal?

• established a constitutional monarchy , feared foreign intervention

• canning supported an appeal for aid , sent a naval force of 5,000 marines

• this policy promised support for an established + commercial ally

• while resisting French expansion

what happened with the USA?

• c1 made efforts to maintain good relations for trading

• e.g. treaty of Ghent

• c2 disliked Monroe doctrine 1823 (can’t intervene or else war)

• thought it bad for trade

• trade talks in 125, expressed his dislike for US statesmen

what was going on with Greece?

• revolt against Turkish control since 1821

• turkey also got help from a soldier from Ottoman Empire, who treated any rebels w/ brutality

• Britain loved greek culture + believed they should help Greece

• russia wanted to help fellow christians in Greece too

• Britisj (c1 and 2) sceptical russia would dominate turkey and Mediterranean

-ended up signing a treaty together to secure greek independence (liberal)

lead to their independence in march 1832

what canning more successful?

• c1 failed to capture unity of great powers after France’s defat in 1815

• c2 lost Austrian support , x preventing frnehc invasion of Spain (humiliation after they’d done it during the peninsular war)

• c2 asserted British influence in supporting Portugal

• treaty w russia showed he hadn’t abandoned the European powers (long-term unsuccessful as they fought against turkey + took lands)

-castlereagh had to keep powers together due to war, unlike canning who privatised trade and keeping people in. Britain happy