bio exam

DNA

A complex molecule containing the genetic information that makes up the chromosomes.

What is the structure of DNA?

double helix

Nucleotides

Basic units of DNA molecule, composed of a sugar, a phosphate, and one of 4 DNA bases

What are the bases of DNA?

Adenine, Thymine, Guanine, Cytosine

What bases bond?

A and T
C and G

What are the types of bonds?

ionic, covalent, hydrogen

Ionic Bond

Formed when one or more electrons are transferred from one atom to another

Covalent Bond

A chemical bond that involves sharing a pair of electrons between atoms in a molecule

Hydrogen Bond

weak attraction between a hydrogen atom and another atom

Chromosomes

threadlike structures made of DNA molecules that contain the genes

Eukaryotes

Cells that contain nuclei

Prokaryotes

Cells that do not contain nuclei

Genome

the complete instructions for making an organism, consisting of all the genetic material in that organism's chromosomes

Replication

repeating the essence of a research study, usually with different participants in different situations, to see whether the basic finding extends to other participants and circumstances

Complementary Sequence

For a given sequence of nucleic acids, the nucleic acids that are related to them by the rules of base pairing (A goes w/ T & C goes with G)

Cell Cycle

series of events that cells go through as they grow and divide

Mitosis

part of eukaryotic cell division during which the cell nucleus divides

What are the phases of the cell cycle?

G1, S, G2, M, Cytokinesis

G1

Cell growth

S phase

DNA replication

G2

Cell prepares to divide

M phase

The phase of the cell cycle that includes mitosis and cytokinesis.

Cytokinesis

Division of the cytoplasm during cell division

How many chromosomes do humans have?

46 (23 pairs)

What is the structure of Chromosomes?

2 chromatids held together by a centromere

What is the central dogma?

DNA-transcription-RNA-translation-protein

What is transcription

Making DNA into RNA

What is the structure of RNA

single stranded and uses u instead of T

What are the main types of RNA

mRNA - messanger, tRNA - transalation, rRNA - ribisomal

What is translation?

the decoding of an mRNA message into a protein

Codons

mRNA base triplets written 5'-3' direction

anti-condon

A sequence of three bases of a tRNA molecule that pairs with the complementary three-nucleotide codon of an mRNA molecule during protein synthesis.

Where are mRNA, tRNA, and rRNA

Coding for Amino Acids

Nucleotides in an mRNA sequence code for amino acids in 3 nucleotide portions known as codons.

Ribosomes

Makes proteins

Mutation

A change in a gene or chromosome.

What happens to the change in DNA?

The gene sequence is messed up

What are the types of Mutations

deletion, insertion, substitution

Deletion

A change to a chromosome in which a fragment of the chromosome is removed.

Insertion

A mutation involving the addition of one or more nucleotide pairs to a gene.

Substitution

A mutation in which a nucleotide or a codon in DNA is replaced with a different nucleotide

Meiosis

Cell division that produces reproductive cells in sexually reproducing organisms

Production of Gametes

meiosis

Diploid

(genetics) an organism or cell having two sets of chromosomes or twice the haploid number

Haploid

(genetics) an organism or cell having only one complete set of chromosomes

What are the phases of Meiosis

Prophase I, Metaphase I, Anaphase I, Telophase I, Prophase II, Metaphase II, Anaphase II, Telophase II

Prophase I

The chromosomes condense, and the nuclear envelope breaks down. crossing-over occurs.

Metaphase I

Pairs of homologous chromosomes move to the equator of the cell.

Anaphase I

Homologous chrmosomes move to the oppisite poles of the cell.

Telophase I

Cytoplasm divides, 2 daughter cells are formed

Prophase II

The duplicated chromosomes and spindle fibers reappear in each new cell.

Metaphase II

Chromosomes line up at the equator.

Anaphase II

Centromeres divides. chromatids move to the opposite poles of the cells.

Telophase II

The spindle fibres disappear, and a nuclear membrane forms around each set of chromosomes.

Parts of a flower

stigma, style, ovary, sepal, stem, anther, filament

Monohybrid Crosses

Monohybrid; crosses that work with a single character at a time, example purple x white flowers, tall x short stems

Dihybrid Crosses

crosses that examine the inheritance of two different traits

Probabilities

Percentage that something will happen

Dominant Trait

a genetic factor that blocks another genetic factor

Recessive Trait

a genetic factor that is blocked by the presence of a dominant factor

Non Mendelian Inheritance

A type of inheritance that does not follow Mendelian laws of inheritance

Codominance

A condition in which neither of two alleles of a gene is dominant or recessive.

Incomplete dominance

Situation in which one allele is not completely dominant over another allele

Sex-Linked

gene located on the X or Y chromosome

Sex Chromosomes

Chromosomes that determine the sex of an individual

Pedigrees

a chart that shows a trait in a family and how it is inherited

Evolution

Change in a kind of organism over time; process by which modern organisms have descended from ancient organisms.

Natural Selection

A process in which individuals that have certain inherited traits tend to survive and reproduce at higher rates than other individuals because of those traits.

What is evidence of evolution?

Anatomy, fossils, molecular (DNA, protein), Artificial selection, biogeography, embryology

What are the five main causes of evoution

Natural Select, Gene flow, mutation, sexual selection, genetic drift

Gene Flow

movement of alleles from one population to another

Mutation in Evolution

change in DNA, increases genetic diversity and is non adaptive

Sexual Selection

A form of natural selection in which individuals with certain inherited characteristics are more likely than other individuals to obtain mates.

Genetic Drift

A change in the allele frequency of a population as a result of chance events rather than natural selection. (randomness has a larger impact when a population is small)

Phylogeny

Evolutionary history of a species

Thoracic Region

chest

Abdominal Region

abdomen

Pelvic Region

pelvis

Vibrissae

whiskers

Pinna

outer ear

Tail

tail

Incisors

front teeth

Teats

nipples

Urogenital Opening

The opening where waste and reproductive fluid is expelled. The common outlet of excretion and reproduction systems.

Anus

A muscular opening at the end of the rectum through which waste material is eliminated from the body

Liver

produces bile

Small Intestine

Digestive organ where most chemical digestion and absorption of food takes place

Large Intestine

Absorbs water and forms feces

Rectum

A short tube at the end of the large intestine where waste material is compressed into a solid form before being eliminated

Stomach

large muscular sac that continues the mechanical and chemical digestion of food

Pancreas

Regulates the level of sugar in the blood

Cecum

first part of the large intestine

Spleen

Organ near the stomach that produces, stores, and eliminates blood cells

Esophagus

A muscular tube that connects the mouth to the stomach.

Lungs

Main organs of the respiratory system

Bronchi

The passages that direct air into the lungs

Trachea

windpipe

Heart

A hollow, muscular organ that pumps blood throughout the body.

Diaphragm

Large, flat muscle at the bottom of the chest cavity that helps with breathing

Thymus

Gland in the thoracic cavity above the heart where T lymphocytes mature.