Unit 2 AP Psych

Epigenetics

the study of environmental influences on gene expression that occur without a DNA change

Polygenic

trait controlled by two or more genes

dominant allele

An allele whose trait always shows up in the organism when the allele is present.

ressive allele

Homozygous

An organism that has two identical alleles for a trait

Heterozygous

An organism that has two different alleles for a trait

endocrine system

the body's "slow" chemical communication system; a set of glands that secrete hormones into the bloodstream

pituitary gland

The endocrine system's most influential gland. Under the influence of the hypothalamus, the pituitary regulates growth and controls other endocrine glands.

thyroid gland

endocrine gland that surrounds the trachea in the neck

adreanal glands

set of endocrine glands that sit above kidneys, help with body arousal during stress

Gonads

sex glands

Testes

male gonads

Ovaries

female gonads

Oxytocin

A hormone released by the posterior pituitary that stimulates uterine contractions during childbirth and milk ejection during breastfeeding.

Vaspressin (ADH)

helps the brain manage social responsiveness

Thyroxine

Also called thryoid hormone, thyroxine is produced and secreted by follicle cells in the thyroid gland. it targets all cells in the body and increases overall body metabolism.

Calcitonin

Lowers blood calcium levels

Adrenaline

A hormone released into the bloodstream in response to physical or mental stress

Cortisol

stress hormone released by the adrenal cortex

Androgens

male sex hormones

Estrogren

influences the development of female secondary sex characteristics

Melatonin

sleep-inducing hormone

Paul Broca

discovered area in the brain (named for him) in the left frontal lobe responsible for language production

Charles Darwin

English natural scientist who formulated a theory of evolution by natural selection (1809-1882)

Michael Gazzaniga

split-brain research; understanding of functional lateralization in the brain; how the cerebral hemispheres communicate

Roger Sperry

scientist who won a Nobel Prize for work with split brain patients

Carl Wernicke

discovered a brain area responsible for interpreting meaning of language

Phenotype

An organism's physical appearance, or visible traits.

Genotype

An organism's genetic makeup, or allele combinations.

Dendrite

the bushy, branching extensions of a neuron that receive messages and conduct impulses toward the cell body

Soma

cell body

Axon

the extension of a neuron, ending in branching terminal fibers, through which messages pass to other neurons or to muscles or glands

axon terminal

The endpoint of a neuron where neurotransmitters are stored

myelin sheath

A layer of fatty tissue segmentally encasing the fibers of many neurons; enables vastly greater transmission speed of neural impulses as the impulse hops from one node to the next.

Nodes of Ranvier

gaps in the myelin sheath

action potential

a neural impulse; a brief electrical charge that travels down an axon

Reuptake

a neurotransmitter's reabsorption by the sending neuron

Neurotransmitters

chemical messengers that cross the synaptic gaps between neurons

Sodium patassium pump

Protein pump transports Na+ Ions and K+ ions

threshold

the level of stimulation required to trigger a neural impulse

all-or-none response

a neuron's reaction of either firing (with a full-strength response) or not firing.

afferent neurons

neurons that take information from the senses to the brain

efferent neurons

Nerve cells that conduct impulses away from the central nervous system

excitory neurotransmitters

cause next neuron to fire

inhibitory neurotransmitters

chemicals released from the terminal buttons of a neuron that inhibit the next neuron from firing

Depolarization

The process during the action potential when sodium is rushing into the cell causing the interior to become more positive.

Repolarization

Return of the cell to resting state, caused by reentry of potassium into the cell while sodium exits the cell.

Serotonin

A neurotransmitter that affects hunger,sleep, arousal, and mood.

Norepinephrine

helps control alertness and arousal

Epinephrine

Neurotransmitter secreted by the adrenal medulla in response to stress. Also known as adrenaline.

Acetylcholine

enables muscle action, learning, and memory

GABA (gamma-aminobutyric acid)

A major inhibitory neurotransmitter. Undersupply linked to seizures, tremors, and insomnia.

Glutamate

The most common neurotransmitter in the brain. Excitatory.

Endorphins

natural, opiate-like neurotransmitters linked to pain control and to pleasure

Dopamine

a neurotransmitter that regulates motor behavior, motivation, pleasure, and emotional arousal

Gene

A segment of DNA on a chromosome that codes for a specific trait

DNA

A complex molecule containing the genetic information that makes up the chromosomes.

Chromosomes

threadlike structures made of DNA molecules that contain the genes

corpus callosum

the large band of neural fibers connecting the two brain hemispheres and carrying messages between them

cerebral cortex

outer region of the cerebrum, containing sheets of nerve cells; gray matter of the brain

central nervous system

made up of the brain and spinal cord

peripheral nervous system

the sensory and motor neurons that connect the central nervous system to the rest of the body

autonomic nervous system

The part of the PNS that controls the glands and the muscles of the internal organs.

sympathetic nervous system

a set of nerves that prepares the body for action in challenging or threatening situations

parasympathetic nervous system

a set of nerves that helps the body return to a normal resting state

somatic nervous system

A subdivision of the peripheral nervous system. Enables voluntary actions to be undertaken due to its control of skeletal muscles

prefrontal cortex

part of frontal lobe responsible for thinking, planning, and language

Broca's area

controls language expression - an area, usually in the left frontal lobe, that directs the muscle movements involved in speech.

Broca's aphasia

condition resulting from damage to Broca's area, causing the affected person to be unable to speak fluently, to mispronounce words, and to speak haltingly

primary motor cortex

the section of the frontal lobe responsible for voluntary movement

primary somatosensory cortex

area of the parietal lobe where messages from the sense receptors are registered

primary visual cortex

The region of the cerebral cortex that receives information directly from the visual system; located in the occipital lobe

Wernicke's area

controls language reception - a brain area involved in language comprehension and expression; usually in the left temporal lobe

Wernicke's aphasia

condition resulting from damage to Wernicke's area, causing the affected person to be unable to understand or produce meaningful language

frontal lobes function

control skilled voluntary movements of limbs and trunk

coordinate muscles involved in speech

control voluntary movements of eyes and eyelids

concentration, problem-solving, and planning

temporal lobe

An area on each hemisphere of the cerebral cortex near the temples that is the primary receiving area for auditory information

occipital lobe

A region of the cerebral cortex that processes visual information

parietal lobe

portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the top of the head and toward the rear; receives sensory input for touch and body position

Roger Sperry and Michael Gazzaniga

Researchers who worked with split brain patients to examine hemisphere specialization.

EEG (electroencephalogram)

shows brain's electrical activity by positioning electrodes over the scalp

PET

a visual display of brain activity that detects where a radioactive form of glucose goes while the brain performs a given task

CT scan

a series of x-ray photographs taken from different angles and combined by computer into a composite representation of a slice through the body

MRI

a technique that uses magnetic fields and radio waves to produce computer-generated images that distinguish among different types of soft tissue; allows us to see structures within the brain

fMRI

a form of magnetic resonance imaging of the brain that registers blood flow to functioning areas of the brain

Plasticity

the brain's ability to change, especially during childhood, by reorganizing after damage or by building new pathways based on experience

neurogenesis

the formation of new neurons

nonconscious

the level of consciousness devoted to processes completely unavailable to conscious awareness (e.g., fingernails growing)

Preconscious

Information that is not conscious but is retrievable into conscious awareness

subconscious

Hidden memories that influence behavior despite no clear memory of them; information you have been exposed to be cannot recall; mere exposure effect (also known as the familiarity principle) - if you have a memory of a dog barking loudly and charging at you at age three, you may not recall your terror/fear, but you are still not likely to buy a product advertised with a barking dog

unconscious

according to Freud, a reservoir of mostly unacceptable thoughts, wishes, feelings, and memories. According to contemporary psychologists, information processing of which we are unaware.

Stimulants

Drugs (such as caffeine, nicotine, and the more powerful amphetamines, cocaine, and Ecstasy) that excite neural activity and speed up body functions.

Depressants

drugs (such as alcohol, barbiturates, and opiates) that reduce neural activity and slow body functions

Hallucinogens

psychedelic drugs, such as LSD, that distort perceptions and evoke sensory images in the absence of sensory input

Tolerance

the diminishing effect with regular use of the same dose of a drug, requiring the user to take larger and larger doses before experiencing the drug's effect

withdrawal

the discomfort and distress that follow discontinuing an addictive drug or behavior

physical dependence

a physiological need for a drug, marked by unpleasant withdrawal symptoms when the drug is discontinued

psychological dependence

the feeling that a drug is needed to continue a feeling of emotional or psychological well-being