What ideas and beliefs were challenged during the Scientific Revolution?
Challenged Beliefs: of ancient authorities, especially Aristotle, and Galen. Ptolemaic system - places Earth at the center of the universe (geocentric). The universe is seen as a series of concentric spheres, one inside the other, with Earth fixed at the center. Heavenly bodies—pure orbs of light—are embedded in the crystal-like, transparent sphere that rotate about Earth. God was at one end of the universe and humans were at the center. Galen’s Human Anatomy - he relied on animal, rather than human dissection. The liver was the beginning point for the circulation of blood.
What new ideas and beliefs emerged to replace the old during the Scientific Revolution?
New Beliefs: of Copernicus, Kepler, Galileo. Heliocentric, or sun-centered, conception of the universe. Planet’s orbits around the sun were elliptical (egg-shaped). Heavenly bodies were composed of material substance, just as Earth was. Humans were no longer at the center of the universe; God was no longer in a specific place (conflict with the Catholic Church). Newton’s Universal Law of Gravity - explained why the planetary bodies continue their elliptical orbits around the sun (GRAVITY!). The universe was now seen as one huge, regulated, uniform machine that worked according to natural laws. Vesalius and Harvey’s Human Anatomy: Vesalius accurately described the individual organs and general structure of the human body. Harvey showed that the heart was the beginning point for the circulation of blood, and that the same blood flows through the veins and arteries and makes a complete circuit through the body. Pascal’s Law - how liquids behave under pressure, development of tools such as the syringe and the hydraulic press. Boyle’s Law - the volume of a gas varies with the pressure exerted on it. Lavoisier - “founder of modern chemistry,” invented a system for naming chemical elements still used today.
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What ideas and beliefs were challenged during the Scientific Revolution?
Challenged Beliefs: of ancient authorities, especially Aristotle, and Galen. Ptolemaic system - places Earth at the center of the universe (geocentric). The universe is seen as a series of concentric spheres, one inside the other, with Earth fixed at the center. Heavenly bodies—pure orbs of light—are embedded in the crystal-like, transparent sphere that rotate about Earth. God was at one end of the universe and humans were at the center. Galen’s Human Anatomy - he relied on animal, rather than human dissection. The liver was the beginning point for the circulation of blood.
What new ideas and beliefs emerged to replace the old during the Scientific Revolution?
New Beliefs: of Copernicus, Kepler, Galileo. Heliocentric, or sun-centered, conception of the universe. Planet’s orbits around the sun were elliptical (egg-shaped). Heavenly bodies were composed of material substance, just as Earth was. Humans were no longer at the center of the universe; God was no longer in a specific place (conflict with the Catholic Church). Newton’s Universal Law of Gravity - explained why the planetary bodies continue their elliptical orbits around the sun (GRAVITY!). The universe was now seen as one huge, regulated, uniform machine that worked according to natural laws. Vesalius and Harvey’s Human Anatomy: Vesalius accurately described the individual organs and general structure of the human body. Harvey showed that the heart was the beginning point for the circulation of blood, and that the same blood flows through the veins and arteries and makes a complete circuit through the body. Pascal’s Law - how liquids behave under pressure, development of tools such as the syringe and the hydraulic press. Boyle’s Law - the volume of a gas varies with the pressure exerted on it. Lavoisier - “founder of modern chemistry,” invented a system for naming chemical elements still used today.
What impact did the advancements of the Scientific Revolution have on society?
The Scientific Revolution: Transformed society by promoting reason, observation, and scientific inquiry, which challenged traditional authority and laid the groundwork for modern science and the Enlightenment.
What did Copernicus, Kepler, Galileo, and Newton do?
Copernicus: Proposed the heliocentric theory—the Sun is at the center of the universe, not the Earth. Kepler: Discovered that planets move in elliptical orbits, not perfect circles. Galileo: Used the telescope to observe moons of Jupiter and sunspots, supporting heliocentrism and showing the heavens were not perfect. Newton: Developed the laws of motion and universal gravitation, explaining how all objects in the universe are connected by gravity.
What were the ideas/achievements of the following?
John Locke - Argued against absolute monarchy, believed in natural rights: life, liberty, and property. Thomas Hobbes - Believed humans needed a strong absolute ruler to avoid chaos; supported a social contract. Voltaire - Supported deism, religious tolerance, and reason; compared universe to a clock. Montesquieu - Advocated for separation of powers and checks and balances. Rousseau - Supported general will and popular sovereignty; believed society corrupts. Denis Diderot - Edited the Encyclopedia to spread Enlightenment ideas. Rene Descartes - “I think, therefore I am”; promoted rationalism and reason. Adam Smith - Wrote The Wealth of Nations; supported capitalism and the invisible hand. Isaac Newton - Showed how natural laws governed the universe; symbol of Enlightenment thinking. Mary Wollstonecraft - Early feminist; argued women deserve education and equal rights.
What were salons?
Salons = The elegant urban drawing rooms where, in the 18th century, writers, artists, aristocrats, government officials, and wealthy middle-class people gathered to discuss the ideas of the philosophes. The women who hosted the salons could influence political opinions and spread Enlightenment ideas.
What were the important ideas of the Enlightenment? What were the effects of the Enlightenment?
Montesquieu’s Separation of Powers - three branches; executive (the monarch), the legislative (Parliament), and the judicial (the courts of law) limit and control each other in a system of checks and balances. Voltaire’s Deism - based on reason and natural law; the universe was like a clock set in motion by God. Diderot’s Encyclopedia - attacked religious superstition and spread Enlightenment ideas. Smith’s Laissez-Faire - free market benefits all through individual self-interest. Rousseau’s Social Contract - general will must govern; all should follow it for the common good. Wollstonecraft on Women - women should have equal rights because they have reason.
What are the stages of a revolution?
Problems Begin (Old Regime): People unhappy with government; unfair laws or poverty. First Changes (Moderate Stage): Peaceful protests and reforms; gov. loses control. Things Get Intense (Radical Stage): Violence and radical leadership take over; extreme changes. Calm Returns (Recovery Stage): New leader brings back stability and order.
How was the French Revolution inspired by the Enlightenment?
Enlightenment on French Revolution - increased criticism of the old order of society had been a part of the Enlightenment, and these ideas spread rapidly among the literate middle class and noble elites who quoted these writers.
What were the long-term causes of the French Revolution? Immediate causes?
Long Term: French society was based on inequality. Clergy and nobility (First and Second Estates) paid no taxes; Third Estate (peasants and bourgeoisie) did all the work and paid the taxes. Enlightenment ideas spread. Immediate: Bad harvests, food shortages, rising prices, unemployment, and the monarchy’s luxury spending led to financial collapse. Louis XVI was forced to call the Estates-General.
How did the revolutionaries attempt to destroy the power of the Old Regime?
The Third Estate declared itself the National Assembly and pledged the Tennis Court Oath to create a constitution. They adopted the Declaration of the Rights of Man. The Bastille was stormed. Women marched on Versailles demanding food and forced Louis XVI to accept reforms.
How did the French Revolution betray its original goal?
Radicals took control—Jacobins and sans-culottes. The monarchy was overthrown, and Louis XVI was executed by guillotine. The Reign of Terror followed, led by Robespierre and the Committee of Public Safety, executing “enemies of the revolution” and creating a Republic of Virtue. De-Christianization occurred.
Why is the French Revolution significant to Western history?
Ended absolute monarchy, promoted popular sovereignty. Introduced modern democracy ideas—liberty, equality, citizenship. Spread Enlightenment ideas in action. Sparked nationalism—people identified with their nation over rulers.
How and why did Napoleon come to power?
The Directory struggled with opposition and relied on the military. In 1799, Napoleon led a coup d’état, overthrowing the Directory and seizing power.
What led to Napoleon’s downfall?
In 1812, he invaded Russia, but his army suffered in the harsh winter retreat. In 1815, he escaped Elba during the Hundred Days, but lost at Waterloo to British and Prussian forces. He was exiled to St. Helena.
What were Napoleon’s positive contributions to Western Civ.?
Napoleonic Code unified French law, ensuring equality before the law, freedom to choose a profession, religious toleration, and end of feudalism. But it reduced women’s rights.
How did Europe attempt to restore the balance of power after Napoleon’s conquests?
The Congress of Vienna (led by Metternich) restored monarchs and redrew borders to maintain peace and power balance. Promoted conservatism and right to intervene militarily to restore monarchs if needed