soc-1101 exam 1

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sociology

the science of society

social facts

products of human interaction with persuasive or coercive power that exist externally to any individual

data

systematically collected sets of empirical observations

research questions

queries about the world that can be answered empirically

sociological research methods

scientific strategies for collecting empirical data about social facts

qualitative research methods

tools of sociological inquiry that involve careful consideration and discussion of the meaning of nonnumerical data

quantitative research methods

tools of sociological inquiry that involve examining numerical data with mathematics

sociological sympathy

understanding others as they understand themselves

research ethics

the set of moral principles that guide empirical inquiry (respect, justice, beneficence)

sociological theory

empirically based explanations and predictions about relationships between social facts

social patterns

explainable and foreseeable similarities and differences among people influenced by the social conditions in which they live

standpoints

points of view grounded in reality

public sociology

the work of using sociological theory to make societies better

sociological imagination

the capacity to consider how people's lives—including our own—are shaped by the social facts that surround us

causation

a statistical relationship in which a change in one variable produces a change in the other

empirical inquiry

a form of investigation that involves looking to the world for evidence

biosocial theory

Investigating the relationships between sociological variables and biological ones

comparative methods

collecting and analyzing data about two or more cases that can be usefully contrasted

computational sociology

Extracting and analyzing data using computers

content analysis

counting and describing patterns of themes in media

Ethnography

carefully observing naturally occurring social interaction, often as a participant

field experiments

testing a hypothesis under carefully controlled but otherwise naturally occurring conditions

historical sociology

collecting and analyzing data that reveal facts about past events

in-depth interviews

conducting intimate conversations with respondents

laboratory experiments

testing a hypothesis in a neutral setting under carefully controlled conditions

social network analysis

mapping of social ties and exchanges between them

spatial analysis

layering data on a landscape divided into fine-grained segments

standardized surveys

using a questionnaire designed to elicit analyzable data

time-use diaries

Having participants self-report their activities at regular intervals over at least 24 hours

Human Subjects Research

research involving data collected from people

correlation

an observed relationship between variables

spurious

a statistical relationship between two variables that appears because both correlate with a third variable

generalizable

a term used to describe data that are applicable to the whole population from which the sample is drawn, not just to the sample itself

academic literature

the existing body of empirical and theoretical publications written by scholars

peer review

evaluation of scientific, academic, or professional work by others working in the same field

informed consent

a clear understanding on behalf of a research subject of what their participation in a research study entails

Confidentiality

guarantees that any information a subject provides will not be reported in any manner that identifies the subject and will not be accessible to people outside the research team

vulnerable populations

groups that at high risk of being harmed if they are included as research subjects

Institutional Review Boards

panels of professionals at colleges that evaluate research proposals to ensure they comply with the moral principles outlined in codes of ethics

professional ethics

a set of moral principles that guide sociologists' everyday activities

theory of mind

the recognition that other minds exist, followed by the realization that we can try to imagine others' mental states

self-concept

our understanding and evaluation of who we are

looking-glass self

the self that emerges as a consequence of seeing ourselves as we think other people see us

self-fulfilling prophecy

a phenomenon in which what people believe is true becomes true, even if it wasn't originally true

coding

a process in which segments of text are identified as belonging to relevant categories

variable

any measurable phenomenon that varies

experimental group

the group in a laboratory experiment that undergoes the experience that researchers believe might influence the dependent variable

control group

the group in a lab experiment that does not undergo the experience that researchers believe might influence the dependent variable

causal claims

assertions that an independent variable is directly and specifically responsible for producing a change in a dependent variable

correlational claims

assertions that changes in an independent variable correspond to changes in a dependent variable but not in a way that can be proven causal

self-narrative

a story we tell about the origin and likely future of ourselves

culture

differences in groups' shared ideas as well as the objects, practices, and bodies that reflect those ideas

socialization

the lifelong learning process by which we become members of our culture

culturally competent

able to understand and navigate our cultures with ease

social construct

an influential and shared interpretation of reality that will vary across time and space

social construction

the process by which we layer objects with ideas, fold concepts into one another, and build connections between them

signifiers

things that stand for other things (examples: emojis, thumbs-up, diamond rings, crosses)

categories

subsets of things that we believe are sufficiently similar to one another to be considered the same

binaries

categories we see as opposites or otherwise in opposition

associations

ideas that have nothing special in common except for the fact that they're connected by a third idea

sequences

ideas arranged into a specific chronological order

hiearchies

ideas placed into a ranked relationship

symbolic structure

a constellation of social constructs connected and opposed to one another in overlapping networks of meaning

beliefs

ideas about what is true and false

values

notions as to what's right and what's wrong

norms

shared expectations for behavior

interpersonal socialization

active efforts by others to help us become culturally competent members of our cultures

subculture

subgroups within societies that have distinct cultural ideas, objects, practices, and bodies

self-socialization

active efforts by ourselves to ensure we are culturally competent members of our cultures

social ties

the connections between us and other people

social networks

webs of ties that link us to each other and, through other people's ties, to people to whom we're not directly linked

homophily

our tendency to connect with others who are similar to us

social media

social networks mediated by the internet

mass media

mediated communication intended for large audiences

media socialization

the process of learning how to be culturally competent through our exposure to media

embodied

physically present and detectable in the body itself

Biosocial research methods

tools of sociological inquiry that investigate relationships between sociological variables and biological ones

Culture-as-value thesis

the idea that we're socialized into culturally specific moralities that guide our feelings about right and wrong

Culture-as-rationale thesis

the idea that we're socialized to know a set of culturally specific arguments with which we can justify why we feel something is right or wrong

Ethnocentrism

the practice of assuming that one's own culture is superior to the cultures of others

cultural relativism

the practice of noting the differences between cultures without passing judgement

social identities

the socially constructed categories and subcategories of people in which we place ourselves or are placed by others

distinction

active efforts to affirm identity categories and place ourselves and others into their subcategories

positive distinction

the claim that members of our own group are superior to members of other groups

in-group bias

preferential treatment of members of our own group and mistreatment of others

minimal group paradigm

the tendency of people to form groups and actively distinguish themselves from others for the most trivial of reasons

social identity theory

the idea that people are inclined to form social groups, incorporate group membership into their identity, take steps to enforce group boundaries, and maximize positive distinction and in-group success

invent

establishing a human feature

divide

deciding what will differentiate people within identity subcategories

stereotype

clusters of ideas attached by social convention to people with specific social identities

perform

doing social identities in accordance with stereotypes

rank

elevating some identity subcategories over others

sexual minorities

people who are gay, lesbian, bisexual, or otherwise non-heterosexual

race

socially meaningful set of artificial distinctions falsely based on superficial and imagined biological differences

psychological wage

a noneconomic good given to one group as a measure of superiority over other groups

one-drop rule

the idea that anyone with any trace of Black ancestry should be considered Black

blood quantum rule

a law limiting legal recognition of American Indians to those who have at least a certain level of documented indigenous ancestry

ethnicity

an identity based on collective memories of a shared history and distinctive culture

gender

ideas, traits, interests, and skills that we associate with being biologically male or female

sex

reference to physical traits related to sexual reproduction