Chapter One: The Land Between Two Rivers (Mesopotamia & Sumerians)

Vocabulary flashcards covering key terms and concepts from the Mesopotamia lesson (Neolithic through Zoroastrianism).

Neolithic Era

The period around 8,000 B.C. when humans shifted from hunting and gathering to farming; agriculture was the catalyst for civilization.

Agriculture

The practice of cultivating crops and domesticating animals; the foundation for permanent settlements and civilization.

Civilization

A complex society with stable settlements and social, political, and cultural development enabled by farming.

Mesopotamia

The ‘land between two rivers’—Tigris and Euphrates—in modern Iraq; cradle of early civilizations.

Tigris and Euphrates

The two rivers that define Mesopotamia and support its civilizations.

Sumerians

Ancient inhabitants of southern Mesopotamia who produced major innovations in math, writing, plowing, wheel, metallurgy, and more.

Division (Mathematics)

Sharing a number into equal parts; one of the earliest math concepts developed by Sumerians.

Multiplication (Mathematics)

Repeated addition; a fundamental arithmetic operation developed by Sumerians.

Square roots

A number that, when squared, gives a given value; Sumerians developed methods for square roots.

Cube roots

A number that, when cubed, gives a given value; Sumerians developed methods for cube roots.

The Plow

A tool that turned soil, increasing farming efficiency and enabling settled agriculture.

Wheeled Vehicle/Chariot

First wheeled carts and chariots, boosting transport, trade, and warfare.

Metallurgy

Science of working with metals (e.g., copper, bronze) to make stronger tools and weapons.

Writing

Invention of writing on clay tablets, enabling record-keeping, laws, and literature.

Cuneiform

Wedge-shaped writing system used in Mesopotamia on clay tablets.

Sailing Ships

Wind-powered vessels that expanded long-distance trade and cultural contact.

City-States

Independent political units with their own governments and laws within Sumer.

Government

Organized political structures and laws within city-states that governed society.

Ziggurats

Large, terraced temple-pyramid structures built to reach toward the heavens.

Organized Polytheism

Sumerian belief in many gods, with priests and temples organizing worship.

Sumerian Civilization

Civilization of Sumer in southern Mesopotamia; roots of Western civilization through writing, government, and religion.

Epic of Gilgamesh

Ancient Mesopotamian epic; earliest literary work with named protagonist and themes of mortality.

Persian Empire

Empire (539–331 BCE) known for roads, secular architecture, and tolerant rule to maintain control.

Zoroastrianism

Religion founded by Zoroaster around 660 BCE; spread in Persia; declined after Alexander’s conquest and later Muslim rule.

Alexander the Great

Macedonian king whose conquests helped spread Greek culture and altered the region's religious landscape.

Food supply chains

Global network of agriculture, transportation, storage, and retail essential for distributing food.

Irrigation systems

Water-management technologies to optimize crop yields in farming.

Agricultural machinery

Tools like tractors, harvesters, and drones that increase farming efficiency.

Genetic engineering and biotechnology

Advances in crop genetics and pest resistance affecting agriculture and medicine.

Rural infrastructure

Roads, storage facilities, processing plants, and markets around agricultural regions.

Climate control technologies

Greenhouses, vertical farming, and controlled environments to optimize production.

Bioplastics and sustainable materials

Eco-friendly materials derived from crops used to reduce reliance on fossil fuels.

Nutrition science and food technology

Development of processed foods, safety systems, and innovations in food preservation.