Ancient History

Irrigation Farming

An agriculture method where water is artificially applied to soil or land to assist in the growing of crops. It differs from rainfall agriculture, where the watering of crops can be dependant on rainfall, with little or no artificial help. Typically used in regions with insufficient rainfall, it involves systems like canals, ditches or pipes to transport and distribute water to fields. The best conditions for agriculture based on natural irrigation were to be found in Egypt. Irrigation agriculture was far more productive than rainfall agriculture, enabling crop yield rations a lot higher.

Knossos

The Capital and most important city of The Minoan civilisation (Crete). The city was not fortified, as Minoan was not a distinctly militaristic culture. The city flourished due to Minoan trade, as their ships transported goods from all over the Mediterranean: Egypt, Palestine, the Aegean islands, Cyprus, Greece… A distinctive part of Minoan art is that what is being depicted are usually peaceful scenes of local flora, fauna, religious ceremonies, however militaristic scenes were few. A script known as Linear A was developed for the administration of the Knossos palace, however, the script has not been deciphered and we know little about the specifics of it.

Linear B Script

Linear B is a script created based on the writing system of the Cretan, which was called a Linear A. It was borrowed by the Mycenae adapted with their own Greek language. They used clay tablets and sealings to carve their scripture. It's a syllabic alphabet consisting of symbols, it has around 87 syllabic signs and over 100 ideographic signs.. The creation of the scripts are still debated, but it's believed to be between the 14th and 16th century BCE. In 1952 the English architect Micheal Ventris deciphered Linear B using the research of American classicist Alice Kober. Linear B is the only language in the Bronze Age Aegean script that has been deciphered. Its parent system Linear A however was not fully deciphered The usage of Linear B seems to be mostly administratives and as of now it is considered an extinct language.

Serf

A very general term for certain forms of dependent labour. It can refer to people who worked on land that was legally owned by a king, a temple or another large landowner. They belonged as it were to the land. Serfs would pay their taxes using their crops. They were an important workforce in the Near East, Mycenaean Greece, Sparta (helots) and the later Roman empire (coloni) ((paraphrasing of the book)). Serfdom was one of the 3 forms of ‘unfree labour’, the other 2 were chattel slavery and debt slavery. Serf was a term to label all unfree labourers who did not belong in the other 2 categories.

Mycenae

Mycenae was the most powerful city of Bronze Age Greece from 1600-1200 BCE. Named after the fortified palace Mycenae on the Peloponnese in Greece. Ruled by a king, eventually becoming an empire with vassal states, it stretched its influence over parts of Greece and Asia Minor. Mycenae conquered Crete and destroyed most of it. It had a strong warrior culture; charioteers were rewarded land for their services. It developed flourishing cities after 1600 BCE, fortifying them later. Their writing, Linear B, was derived from the Cretan Linear A.

Redistribution Economy

It is an economic system in which the ruler owns all the land and the subjects have to grow their own crops and pay taxes to the ruler. The taxes are redistributed to the upper strata. There is no free trade or classical market activity in this type of economy. The only option is to barter. Prices for products are set by the ruler, which reinforces his power over the economy. It is debated whether this economic system was used in the Ancient Near East, but the consensus is that a few elements of this economic system were used, but it was not a pure redistribution economy.

Delian League

Founded in 478 BCE, it was an alliance of Greek city-states led by Athens. Initially formed to resist Persian control and keep Greece safe, it evolved into an Athenian empire, with member states paying tribute to Athens. Athenian dominance in the League was assured by the silver from the Laurium mines. Members had to supply forces or finances; most paid money rather than forces. The league's treasury was originally on Delos, hence the name. Athenian hegemony through the Delian League was a major factor in the outbreak of the Peloponnesian War.

Parthenon

The Parthenon is a temple and is dedicated to the goddess Athena, in thanksgiving for the Hellenic victory over Persian Empire invaders during the Greco-Persian Wars. It was built between 447 and 432 BC, during the city's Golden Age. The Parthenon also served as the city treasury. Construction started in 447 BC when the Delian League was at the peak of its power. it epitomizes Classical Greek architecture and art, and houses a colossal statue of Athena.

Peloponnesian War

After a short period of peace, this war broke out between Athens and Sparta in 431, when Athens came into conflict with Sparta’s maritime allies Corinth and Megara. This war was far more intensive than the previous one that took place between 461-446 BCE. Most Greek states that had hitherto remained neutral now took sides with Sparta. Despite several major setbacks, Athens held its own in the first stage of the war. But due to a combination of factors (like losing the best part of the city’s army and navy), Athens lost the second stage of the war. The war ended in Athenian defeat and the decline of its golden age.

Polis

Often translated as city-state (with the term being poleis in plural). The polis was an independent, self-governing community of citizens living under common rule, with the ideal of autonomy and clear territorial boundaries. Each city-state had its own government, customs, and laws, and played a fundamental role in Greek political, social, and cultural life. The term is not analogous to contemporary cities or states.

Demosthenes

A prominent Athenian statesman and orator who lived from 384 to 322 BCE. Known for his speeches, especially the "Philippics", he warned against the rise of Philip II of Macedon and urged Athens to resist Macedonian dominance. He fiercely opposed the rising influence of Philip II and Alexander the Great on the Greek world. He provoked an uprising against Macedonia after Alexander the Great’s death.

Sophists

Itinerant teachers in ancient Greece during the 5th century BCE. The provided lessons in rhetoric for a price to young rich men, giving them a ‘competitive edge in democratic politics. They specialised in using rhetoric and argumentation, often challenging traditional beliefs and emphasising the relativity of truth. They also reflected on such matters as state and society, language and standards of human behaviour, where they tried to apply the rational, logical way of thinking of natural philosophy. Critics, like Plato, accused them of manipulating language for personal gain.

Alexander the Great

A Macedonian king (356-323 BCE) known for his military genius and extensive conquests, which created one of history's largest empires, stretching from Greece to Egypt and into present-day India, thereby spreading Greek culture across the known world.

Diaspora

The dispersion of a population from their original homeland. Often used to refer to the Jewish diaspora, but applicable to other populations as well.

Polybius

Ancient Greek historian (c. 200-118 BCE), known for his work "The Histories," which covered the period of 264-146 BCE, detailing the rise of Rome and analyzing the principles of historical causation.

Oikoumenè

Ancient Greek term referring to the known or inhabited world. It was often used in the context of the expansive civilized world as known to the Greeks and Romans.

Seleucid Empire

The Seleucid kingdom was the largest of the Hellenistic kingdoms. It was founded by Seleucus I following the death of Alexander the Great. It comprised almost the whole of Asia from present-day Turkey to Afghanistan, except for Palestine and southern Syria. In some respects, it was a continuation of the Persian empire under a Macedonian dynasty. The division of satrapies stayed the same. It was a disparate realm, containing a wide variety of people and cultures, which is why its fragmentation was a constant menace. In 64 BCE, the Romans took over control and reduced the Seleucid kingdom to the province of Syria.

Battle of Gaugamela

The second and final battle between Alexander the Great and the Persian King Darius III in 331 BCE. Taking place in northern Iraq on October 1, it was a decisive confrontation which ended in a victory for Alexander. He had himself crowned with a diadem as the ‘king of Asia’ and from then onwards, a diadem came to symbolise Hellenistic kingship. Alexander's victory led to the fall of the Persian Empire and furthered his control over significant territories.

Nestor Cup

A drinking cup from the 8th century BCE, found in Pithecusae, inscribed with one of the oldest Greek texts. The Nestor in question may be the owner of the cup or it might be a reference to a figure from the Iliad. Its presence in Pithecusae, a Greek colony, shows the dissemination of Greek culture due to colonization.

Amarna Letters

A collection of 382 clay tablets, primarily written in Akkadian cuneiform, discovered in the ancient Egyptian city of Amarna in the late 19th century. They date from the 14th century BCE and correspond between the Egyptian Pharaohs and rulers of various Near Eastern states, as well as smaller regional entities. These letters provide invaluable insights into the geopolitics, diplomacy, and cultural exchanges of the Late Bronze Age, showcasing the interconnectedness of ancient civilizations.

Consul

Two annually elected magistrates, who were to be called ‘consuls’ after 367. After the kingship was abolished in Rome, these consuls came to share the imperium; it was the highest elected office in the Roman Republic). They were responsible for civil and military leadership, essentially acting as co-presidents and generals. Their power was restricted through the right of veto for keeping each other in check, and their term of office was limited to one year. 

First Triumvirate

An informal alliance that was formed in 60 BCE between three influential Roman politicians: Julius Caesar, Pompey, and Crassus. Not an official institution, it was a private agreement to assist one another in political struggles. Together, they secured the election of Caesar to the consulship in 59. 

Imperium

From the Latin term “command”. A general authority enjoyed by the Roman kings that covered all the fields with which the state concerned itself. It was a unique Roman concept, and it granted the officials authority to command military forces, enact laws and administer justice. It was a sign of leadership and was held by high-ranking positions like consuls and praetors. The kings were assisted and advised by the Senate, a council consisting of the heads of the aristocratic families, and they could summon a public assembly. The two consuls had the right to veto the other, which made it possible to hold them to the same degree. In the last years of the republic, the imperium was sometimes granted for specific terms beyond one year.

Social War

A conflict from 91 to 88 BCE between Rome and its Italian allies (socii). The allies, wanting Roman citizenship and the benefits thereof, revolted when their demands were denied. Rome managed to quickly win over Italian regions with close ties to the Romans by making concessions. Those regions were the first to be granted Roman citizenship. Rome won the war in military terms, but admitted the (free) Italians to the Roman citizenry and recorded them as citizens after 88 to not alienate itself from other Italian allies for good. This process of registration took some years.

Romulus

Legendary founder and first king of Rome, according to Roman legend.. According to myth, he and his twin brother Remus, raised by a she-wolf, founded the city in 753 BCE. He later killed Remus in a dispute and named the city after himself.

Plebs

The common citizens of ancient Rome, as opposed to the elite patricians. Not a clearly defined social group; there were plebeians of wealthy, moderate and poor status, and the activities they engaged in differed. Took up most of the social structure of the early Roman Republic population; only slaves were the other subjects. Over time, they gained increased political power and rights through institutions like the Plebeian Council.

Ostracism

'Potsherd judgement', from ostrakon, meaing 'potsherd'. A practice in the assembly by which any citizen could be sent into exhile. The candidate's name was written on potsherds, and whoever's name occured on most sherds was banned for ten years, though he retained possession of his property. To make the procedure legally valid, at least 6000 shards were required. The measure is believed to have been introduced by Cleisthenes, though it could have been post-Cleisthenic. Ostracism aimed to prevent the rise of potential tyrants or overly influential individuals, maintaining democratic balance.

Homerus (Homer)

Accredited author of the epic poems The Iliad and the Odyssey (8th or 7th century BCE), which laid the fundamentals of Greek literature. He was probably illiterate, meaning the stories would have been transmitted orally. Homer probably memorized the poem from his teachers. Many of the features in the Iliad are more representative of Homer’s own world than 13th to 11th century Greece, which it portrays. Other aspects of the story are more accurate, but using the Iliad to learn about that particular time in ancient Greece, wouldn’t be representative. His works are foundational texts of ancient Greek literature and have been influential in Western literary tradion

Phalanx

A rectangular infantry formation used in ancient Greece, characterized by the close arrangement of soldiers (hoplites) holding long spears and shields. It was a dominant military tactic from the 7th to 4th centuries BCE, providing strength through unity and discipline.

Tyrannos

A sole ruler who has assumed supreme power, even though it does not belong to him by right. Usually an aristocrat who managed to sideline other aristocrats. The word gradually acquired an emotional and negative value that it did not initially carry. Examples of tyrants are Cypselus of Corinth (657-625) and Polycratos of Samos (ca. 540-522.) Almost everywhere in Greece the fall of the aristocracy went hand in hand with the appearance of tyranny. A king could also become a 'tyrant' by assuming powers that transcended those of a primus-inter-pares king. The Greeks borrowed the word from one of the languages of Asio minor.

Helot

A subjugated population in ancient Sparta. They served as serfs who were completely subjugated and had no rights. Helots were the original inhabitants of Laconia and Messenia, which were the areas conquered by the Spartiates. They were forced to work the land so that the Spartiates could focus on military training. They were primarily farmers and laborers. Their status was hereditary, and while they were not slaves, their rights were extremely limited, ensuring Spartan control. 

Ethnos

(Literally means 'nation'). In ancient Greece, it referred to an individual community or group of people who shared a common culture, language, and identity. These groups often lived together in specific regions, and the concept was integral to the understanding of Greek identity and society. The groups joiend forced in special circumstances, in particular in military operations. By contrast with poleis, the role of urban centres in ethne varied greatly. Settlement structures range from a high degree of urbanization and local autonomy to scattered villages with little urban development. In ancient Greece, it referred to a community or group of people who shared a common culture, language, and identity. These groups often lived together in specific regions, and the concept was integral to the understanding of Greek identity and society.

Arche

(Sovereignty; authority) The hegemony of Athens over the Delian league. Their power came from an asymmetrical relationship, because of which they enforced obligatory tributes, send garrisoned units and officials.

Hegemony

(Superior power) In ancient Greece referred to leadership or dominance, particularly of one city-state or leader over others. For example, Athens and Sparta each held hegemonic power at different times during the Classical period, exerting influence over or directly controlling other Greek city-states.

Hellenotamiai

Officials in the Delian League, an ancient Greek alliance led by Athens. Appointed by the Athenians in the 5th century BCE, the ten treasurers of the Delian League were primarily responsible for managing the finances and contributions (tributes) of the member states, ensuring funds were available for collective defence and projects.

Phoros

In the context of the Delian League, referred to the tribute paid by the allied city-states to Athens. This was initially meant for mutual defense against the Persian Empire, but over time, the use of these funds became a point of contention and symbol of Athenian dominance.

Symmachy

A military alliance in ancient Greece, where participating city-states agreed to provide mutual support, especially in times of war. These alliances were crucial in the highly competitive and often hostile environment of the Greek city-states.

Aparchai

(to share with the gods) The first-fruits or initial offerings given by the allied city-states to the sanctuary of Apollo at Delos in the context of the Delian League. This religious offering symbolized the city-states' commitment to the alliance and the shared cultural and religious practices of the Hellenic world.

Principate

Word used to refer to the Roman political system in the first two centuries of imperial age (until 285). Augustus’ rule is often referred to as the principate because he favoured the title princeps. This word means “first citizen” and was first used by Augustus instead of king, to differentiate himself from kings (bad reputation). It served to preserve the illusion of the continuation of the republic, preserving existing structures while holding ultimate authority. It was not an official title but rather a form of address. The connotations of this word were more republican than terms like dictator or dominus. Actually, though, the principate was the time when the imperium was transformed from the broad-based practices (deriving from the senate) of the republic to the ultimate authority of a single ruler. The era was marked by relative stability, territorial expansion, and the centralisation of power in the emperor.

Tacitus

Roman senator and historian, active in the late 1st and early 2nd centuries CE. He is one of the most famous authors of the period around 100 CE. His works, including "Annals" and "Histories," provide valuable insight into the Roman Empire's politics, society, and culture. He is renowned for his critical analysis of power and the moral integrity of Rome's leaders. He was of the opinion that a monarchy was the only possible form of government, but he criticised its shortcomings and regretted the loss of republican freedom. 

Mithras

A god worshipped in a mystery religion popular within the Roman Empire, particularly among soldiers, from the 1st to the 4th centuries CE. Originating from Persian or Indian mythology, his cult involved secretive initiation rituals, a belief in the afterlife, and communal meals, playing a significant role in the religious landscape of the Roman Empire. He was a heroic fighter of evil and very popular in military camps. His cult was confined to men. 

Romanisation

Refers to the spread and adoption of Roman culture, language, and governance across the territories of the Roman Empire. Occurring from the 3rd century BCE to the 5th century CE, this process transformed local societies as they integrated Roman customs, architectural styles, and the Latin language, contributing to a cohesive Roman identity.

Limes

Fortified border regions of the Roman Empire, established to protect against invasions and control trade and migration. These frontiers, active from the 1st century BCE to the 5th century CE, varied in structure, from walls and ditches to military roads, reflecting the Roman Empire's vastness and diverse challenges.

The Year of the Four Emperors

In 69 CE, Rome experienced rapid succession and conflict, with Galba, Otho, Vitellius, and Vespasian all claiming the imperial throne in quick succession. This turbulent period, driven by military power struggles and political instability, ended with Vespasian establishing the Flavian Dynasty, restoring a degree of stability to the Roman Empire.

Julian the Apostate

Roman Emperor from 361 to 363 CE, known for attempting to reverse the growing influence of Christianity and restore pagan practices. He had come to power through usurpation and civil war. Raised as a Christian, he later renounced the faith, promoting religious pluralism and reviving pagan rituals. His reign was brief, and his efforts largely ceased after his death, making him the last pagan emperor of Rome. He had wanted to settle scores with the Persians forever and had attacked them. In the end, he came into logistical trouble and military dire straits. He was wounded himself and died in Mesopotamia.

Constantine

Roman Emperor from 306 to 337 CE, acclaimed emperor at York in Britain. He acquired control over the western half of the Roman Empire in 312 and became sole emperor in 324. He is renowned for converting to Christianity and establishing Constantinople (modern-day Istanbul) as a new capital, contributing to the spread of Christianity throughout the empire. The Edict of Milan in 313 CE, issued under his rule, granted religious tolerance for Christians, marking a significant shift in the empire's religious landscape.

Franks

A confederation of Germanic tribes that played a crucial role in the transformation of the Western Roman Empire into medieval Europe. They emerged from the Lower Rhine area. They began settling in Roman territories in the 3rd century CE, and under leaders like Clovis I, they established a powerful kingdom, converting to Christianity and adopting many Roman customs.

Diocletian

Roman Emperor from 284 to 305 CE, known for initiating significant administrative, military, and economic reforms. He established the Tetrarchy, dividing the empire between four rulers to improve governance and security. He also persecuted Christians, seeking to revive traditional Roman values. His abdication in 305 CE marked the end of the Crisis of the Third Century, stabilizing the empire.

Nicaea

Located in present-day Turkey, was a significant ancient city, known for hosting the First Council of Nicaea in 325 CE. Convened by Emperor Constantine, this ecumenical council aimed to address the Arian controversy and establish uniform Christian doctrine. The Nicene Creed, a statement of Christian faith, was a significant outcome of the council, shaping the direction of Christianity.

ruler cult

Ruler cults were an indication of the declining influence of the ancient gods. The ruler was regarded as a god who moved among mortals, as a saviour and a benefactor. An example of this are Demetrius Poliorcetes, who had freed Athens from the Macedonian garrison in 307 and his father Antigonus the One-Eyed, who were honoured as divine saviours. Ruler cults became particularly popular in the Greek cities on the west coast of Asia Minor. They differed from the state cults that the Seleucid and Ptolemaic kings instituted later on.

Hellenization debate

Refers to the question of how large the impact of Greek culture and language was on non-Greek societies. Some historians claim that the Near Eastern world became entirely Hellenised after the conquests of Alexander the Great, but that is not correct. Only the elite of large cities became acquainted with Greek culture and adopted various elements of that culture. Greek did not become the common spoken language, except in Asia Minor and very large cities like Alexandria, where many Greeks lived together.

Arsacid empire

Also known as the Parthian kingdom, originated in the Persian satrapy Parthia, which is known to have already existed during the reign of Darius I. The Parthians conquered Iran in the course of the third and second centuries BCE. The Parthian kings called themselves ‘Phil-Hellene’ on their coins to please the Greeks in their kingdom. The language for official purposes was Greek, but in the first century AD the Parthian language (Iranian language written in Aramaic script) became increasingly important.

satrapy

A province governed by a satrap of the Achaemenids, a governor in ancient Persia. It was established by Darius I (the Great), who divided his empire into twenty satrapies. The Parthian kingdom originated in the satrapy Parthia, which is known to have already existed during the reign of Darius I. After the Persian empire was taken over, the division of the satrapies remained the same.

Sassanids

People of the Sasanid empire? The Sasanid empire was ruled by the house of the Sasanids and lasted until about 640, when it was unable to withstand the advancing Arabs. The new Sasanid kings, Ardashir and Shapur, defeated not only the Parthian king but also apparently many local kings.

• revival of Persian culture

• rivals of Roman and Byzantine Empire

• last pre-islamic Persian Empire

• centralization

• bureaucracy

soldier emperors

A soldier emperor is an emperor during the latter part of the imperial crisis of the Roman Empire who had risen through the ranks in the army and had been made emperor by their troops.

arians

early Christian heresy; believed that Jesus, the Son of God, was created by God the Father and was therefore not made of the same substance as Him, which was defined as the doctrine in the 4th century according to the Edict of Milaan, organised by Constantine the Great.

barbarians

peoples outside the Roman Empire, foreigners like the Franks and the Huns. 

symploke

Greek word for amalgamation put forward by historian Polybius. Concerns how the expansion of the Roman empire meant the world (Europe, Asia and Africa) was all connected for the first time