Studied by 77 people
location of working memory
prefrontal cortex
location of consolidation and spatial memory
hippocampus
location of implicit procedural memory
cerebellum
location of implicit memory: fear processing
amygdala
location of explicit memory
temporal lobe
retrograde amnesia
loss of memory for events preceding a trauma
anterograde amnesia
loss of memory for events following a trauma
semantic memory
memory for knowledge and general facts
retroactive interference
access to older memories is impaired by newer memories
proactive interference
access to newer memories is impaired by older memories
causes of distortion
memory bias, flashbulb memories, misattribution, suggestibility, false memories
long-term potentiation (LTP)
enhanced activity that results from the strengthening of synaptic connections between neurons
context-dependent memory
the environment in which learning takes place provides a cue that aids your access to the information
state-dependent memory
being in the same internal state as when you learned the information provides a cue that helps you access the information
prospective memory
remembering events/obligations that will happen in the future
schema
an internal representation of the world; an organization of concepts and actions that can be revised by new information about the world
network of association
an item's distinct features are linked in a way that helps us identify the item
three stages of memory
encoding
storage
retrieval
latent learning
learning without reinforcement
vicarious conditioning
learn to engage in a behavior or not after seeing others being rewarded or punished for that action
operant conditioning
learning by reinforcement
non-associative learning
individual learns about a stimulus
habituation
a type of non-associative learning that occurs when a person is exposed to a stimulus for a long time, or repeatedly. the individual habituates meaningless events around them - events that are not helpful or relevant.
sensitization
a type of non-associative learning that occurs when an individual is exposed to a stimulus for a long time or repeatedly and then has an increased behavioral response.
activation-synthesis model
dreams may have no meaning at all. they represent random activity from the brainstem that is sent to the cortex, where this information is synthesized into a story or explanation for these random inputs and memory consolidation.
freud's opinion of dreams
dreams provide insight to subconscious thoughts and they constitute a disguised attempt at wish fulfillment. this cannot be proven.
sociocognitive theory
hypnotized people aren't in an altered state, but they behave in a way that is expected.
disassociation theory
hypnosis causes an altered state in which awareness is separated
dual processing
the simultaneous processing of information at both the conscious and unconscious levels
suprachiasmatic nucleus
pair of cell clusters in the hypothalamus that controls circadian rhythms
brainwaves in the normal waking state
beta waves
brainwaves just before sleep
alpha waves
global workspace model
no singular brain region is responsible for "awareness"
N3 waves
delta waves
REM waves
beta waves
N1 waves
theta waves
N2 waves
theta waves
three steps to thinking critically
what is the claim that i'm being asked to accept?
what evidence (if any) is provided to support the claim?
given the evidence, what are the most reasonable conclusions about the claim - should it be accepted or rejected?
wilhelm wundt
opened first psychology lab in 1879 in germany
structuralism
spearheaded by wilhelm wundt, margaret washburn, edward titchener. used introspection to reveal the structure of the human mind. belief that the conscious experience can be broken down into underlying parts
functionalism
spearheaded by william james and mary calkins; based on darwin's theory of evolution. advantageous variations are more likely to be genetically passed down and obsolete variations tend to die out. focused on adaptive purposes served by behavior & mental processes.
psychoanalytic theory
freud's belief that thoughts & actions are influenced by unconscious mental forces. "talking theory" like mental therapy. psychological disorders were thought to be caused by conflict between unconscious thoughts vs acceptable behavior
humanistic psychology
spearheaded by maslow & rogers. investigates how people grow to become happier & more fulfilled. focuses on people's innate, basic goodness.
cognitive psychology
spearheaded by miller & neisser: argued that learning was not as simple as behaviorists believed. study of how people think, learn, & remember.
five domains of modern psychology
biological, mental & physical health, cognitive, developmental, social & personality
dualism
descarte: mental & physical experiences are distinct & separate
behaviorism
spearheaded by john b. watson & b.f. skinner: describes behavior in response to environmental stimuli
six learning strategies (IMPACT)
improving (growth mindset) monitoring (plan & check progress) practicing (repeated, short sessions) attending (selective attention, ignore distractions) connecting (use cues) thinking deeply (elaboration)
institutional review boards (IRBs)
guardians of ethical guidelines, composed of administrators, legal advisors, trained scholars, & members of the community
four ethical standards
privacy, confidentiality, informed consent, protection from harm
case studies
method of research advantage: provides a lot of data about a specific case disadvantage: can be very subjective
observational studies
method of research advantage: can be very valuable in early stages of research disadvantage: observer bias, reactivity (people act differently if they know they're being watched)
self-reports
method of research advantage: easy to administer, cheap, fast disadvantage: self-report bias, people may not recall information accurately
correlational methods
method of research: using two or more naturally-occurring methods to determine the strength of the relationship between them. advantages: rely on naturally-occurring relationships that may take place in a real-world setting disadvantages: can't demonstrate causal relationships, can't show the direction of the cause/effect relationship (directionality problem). an unidentified variable may be involved (third-variable problem)
experimental methods
method of research: examine how one variable that is manipulated affects another variable. determines causality. advantages: provides control over independent (manipulated) variable, avoids directionality problem disadvantages: manipulating something other than the independent variable can affect the dependent variable & lead to inaccurate conclusions. often take place in an artificial setting.
confound
potential third variable
plasticity
capacity of the brain to develop new neuropathways
three ways of clearing neurotransmitters from the synapse
reuptake, enzyme degradation, diffusion
reuptake
reabsorbing neurotransmitters into the presynaptic neuron
enzyme degradation
the breaking down of neurotransmitters
diffusion
neurotransmitters float away
spatial resolution
determines where in the brain an action is occurring (i.e. PET scan, fMRI)
temporal resolution
determines when the brain is active; time-sensitive. (i.e. EEG, MEG)
causal resolution
determines whether something causes a specific brain behavior (i.e. transcranial magnetic stimulation)
three basic functions of the nervous system
receives sensory input, 2) processes sensory information by paying attention to it, perceiving it, & remembering it, 3) responds to the information by acting on it.
central nervous system
consists of nerve cells in the brain & spinal cord
peripheral nervous system
consists of the nerve cells outside of the brain & spinal cord
dendrites
short, branch-like extensions of the cell body that receive signals from neighboring neurons
cell body
information from other neurons is collected & combined
axon
transmits electrical impulses; vary tremendously in length.
terminal buttons
located at the end of the axon; knoblike structure
synapse
where communication occurs between neurons
neurotransmitters
chemicals of communication that travel to the receiving neuron's dendrites
three phases of neural communication
transmission, 2) reception, 3) integration
transmission phase
electrical signals travel along the axon and neurotransmitters are released from the terminal buttons in the synapse
reception phase
dendrites of other neurons receive chemical signals
integration phase
neurons assess & integrate the incoming signals
resting state
electrical charge inside the neuron is more negative than the outside
sodium ions
ions that enter & make the electrical charge inside the neuron more positive; if enough stimulation occurs, action potential is fired
action potential
message fires down the axon to release neurotransmitters. either fires or doesnt, no difference in strength. quickly repeated messages are more important
refractory period
returns the neuron back to its resting state using a sodium potassium pump (pumps out sodium & pumps in potassium). during this period, the neuron is less likely to respond to incoming stimulation
myelin sheath
fatty casing that insulates the axon, making fast neurocommunication possible
presynaptic neuron
the neuron that sends the signal
postsynaptic
the neuron that receives the signal
excitatory signals
signals the excite the neuron. if the total amount of input exceeds a certain threshold, an action potential is fired (depolarization)
inhibitory signals
signals that inhibit the neuron & decrease the likelihood of firing an action potential (hyperpolarization)
selective communication
communicate with other specific neurons, forming networks
acetylcholine
neurotransmitter involved in motor control over muscles, attention, memory, learning, & sleeping
norepinephrine
neurotransmitter involved in arousal & alertness "wake-up fairy" !!
seratonin
neurotransmitter involved in emotional states, impulse control, dreaming
dopamine
neurotransmitter involved in reward & motivation, motor control over voluntary movement
GABA (gamma-aminobutyric acid)
neurotransmitter involved in inhibition of action potentials, anxiety reduction, intoxication through alcohol
endorphins
neurotransmitter involved in pain reduction & reward
glutamate
neurotransmitter involved in the enhancement of action potentials, learning, & memory
agonists
drugs that enhance to actions of neurotransmitters (i.e. nicotine, caffeine)
antagonists
drugs that inhibit the actions of neurotransmitters
structures of the hindbrain
medulla, pons, cerebellum
medulla
hindbrain structure involved in breathing, heart rate, and other survival mechanisms
pons
hindbrain structure involved in sleep, arousal, left-right body movement coordination
cerebellum
hindbrain structure involved in motor learning, coordination, & balance
Note 
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