psych 250 umich exam 2

four theories of early psychosocial development

cognitive, evolutionary, sociocultural, behaviorism

Trust vs. Mistrust

infants learn basic trust if the world is a secure place where needs are met

autonomy vs shame and doubt

infants succeed or fail in gaining sense of self rule over their own actions and bodies

behaviorism- pychosocial development

parents mold an infant's emotion and personality via reinforcement or punishment. social referencing strengthens learning through observations

cognitive theory - pychosocial development

infants form a concept of what to expect from other people. early experiences are important because of beliefs, perceptions, mems. result in a working model. interpretation of experiences is key.

working model

set of assumptions about relationships

evolutionary theory- pychosocial development

infant's emotions are part of the evolutionary mandate. over the course of human history, attachment promotes species survival by keeping toddlers close to their caregiver and keeping caregivers vigilant

sociocultural theory- pychosocial development

the social/cultural context plays a central role in infant dev.

ethnotheory

child rearing theory that is embedded within certain culture/ethnic group

proximal parenting

involves close phsyical contact with babies bodies

distal parenting

practices maintain more physical distance --> give toys, encourage self feeding, talking face to face

keller et al 2004

78 rural Nso and urban greek parents/infants. found that Nso moms were proximal and Greek moms were distal. Nso toddlers did NOT rexognize themselves in a mirror but were compliant. Greek toddlers were self aware but not compliant. longitudinal

basic first year emotions

happiness- social smile (6 wk), laughter (2-4 mo)
anger- general distress (birth), anger (4-8 mo)
fear- stranger wariness and separation anxiety (9-14 mo)

self conscious emotions

shame, embarrassment, guilt, envy, pride (emerges in second year as they see themselves as separate and unique)

self awareness

realization that one is unique

Lewis and Brooks 1978

dot of paint on nose (emerges 15-18 weeks)

temperament

inborn differences between one person and another in emotions, activity, self control. both genes and parenting impact (epigenetic)

thomas and chess 1977

determined divisions between children: easy (40%), difficult (10%), slow to warm up (15%), unclassified (35%)

easy child

like routines, minimal crying, not distressed in new situation

difficult child

irregular routines, hard time with transitions, easily irritated, bad with new experiences, lots of crying, high risk for later issues

slow to warm up child

takes a while to adjust, warm up and then good to go

effortful control

able to regulate attention and emotion and self soothe

differences between shy and outgoing babies

tense babies --> shy, low muscle tension --> outgoing. differences in brain waves by 14 mo

goodness of fit

the match between the child's temperament and the environment (environment matters when it comes to temperament !!)

Stupica, Sherman and Cassidy, 2007

attachment assessed in 84 irritable newborns at 12 months using strange situation. highly irritable infants who were securelt attached were more social and just as adpet at exploration as other otddlers over time. all infants who were insecurelt attached were less social and less skilled at exploring this was especially true for most irritable

synchrony

coordinated interaction between caregiver and infant that starts the process of attachment. critical for socioemotional dev

attachment

close emotional bond between infant and caregiver that develops over first year of life

internal working model

a set of expectations formed early in life about availability of attachment figures, quality caregiving is key!

strange situation

via ainsworth. findings: insecure avoidant (10-20%), secure (50-70%), insecure resistant (10-20%), disorganized/disoriented (5-10%) in US samples

secure (type B)

explores toys, may cry upon caregiver leaving, happy to see caregiver return, long term outcomes are positive

insecure avoidant (type A)

explores toys, does NOT cry when caregiver leaves, avoids or ignores caregiver upon return, aloof in personal relationships, lonely and depressed in adulthood

insecure resistant (type C)

little or no exploration of toys, cries when caregiver leaves, remains upset upon caregivers return, adult relationsihps often angry, stormy, or unpredictable, few long term friendships

disorganized (type D)

bizarre, inconsistent behavior toward caregiver, physically abused or experience parental mental illness, long term outcomes very negative

factors that affect attachment

opportunity for attachment, quality of caregiving in first 6 mo, infant characteristics, parents' internal working models

attachment in adulthood: AAI Main, kaplan and cassidy 1985

AAI taps current state of mind regarding early attachment relationships by asking adults to recount childhood experiences. findings:
anxious-avoidant --> dismissing
secure --> secure
anxious resistant --> preoccupied

secure (aai classification)

memories match words, objective evaluations of childhood experiences, clear mems and coherent discourse

dismissing (aai classification)

lack of mems and stereotyped descriptions, derogation of attachment ("it wasn't much of a relationship") minimize importance

preoccupied (aai classification)

conflicted and confused discourse, low coherence, passivity or involved anger

just right phenomenon

a child's insistence that a particular experience occurs in an exact sequence and manner (ex picky eaters) peaks at 3 yo

speed of processing

myelination, really important change

myelin

fatty coating on axons to speed up processing

corpus callosum

myelinates rapidly from 2-6 years leading to more efficient communication between hemispheres

lateralization

"sideness" refers to the specialization of certain functions by each side of the brain with one side dominant

dimenstional change card sort task- zelazo, frye, rapus

ask kid to sort by shape, and then switch to asking them to sort by color. under 4 yo, fail. succeed after 4 yo

limbic system

crucial for the expression and regulation of the emotions

amygdala

emotions (fear and anxiety)

hippocampus

memory

hypothalamus

responds to amygdala and hippocampus to produce hormones that activate other parts of the brain and body

gross motor skills

Balance improves: Run, jump, hop, gallop, skip!
Greater speed and endurance

fine motor skills

-Self-help: dressing, eating & tying shoes
-Drawing

artistic expression

-scribbles (during 2nd year)
-first representational forms (3 yo)
more realistic drawings (6 yo)

preoperational thought

gains in symbolic thought (make believe play, language), limitations in thinking (centration/egocentrism, focus on appearance, static reasoning, irreversibility)

centration

the tendency to focus on one aspect of a situation to the exclusion of other
ex: kids can't understand that their dad is someone's brother

egocentrism

inability to consider another person's POV (form of centration), NOT selfishness

piaget's three mountain task

there's 3 little mountains and you put kid on one side and ask them what someone on the other side would be able to see

static reasoning

assume world is unchanging (why aren't teachers always at school)

irreversibility

inability to mentally reverse series of steps

conservation

physical traits of objects remain the same despite changes in appearance. NOT logical until 7

what age do children become logical

7 ish

updates to piaget's ideas on egocentric thought

can adjust language to fit the level of the listener, can take others' perspectives in simple situations

updates to piaget's ideas on illocigal thought

can think logically when the task is simplified and relevant to everyday life

updates to piaget's ideas on categorization

able to organize everday knowledge into nested categories

updates to piaget's ideas on appearance vs reality

can solve appearance-reality tasks in nonverbal ways or in game-like setting

what is the main criticism of piaget's thinking

he underestimated the abilities of kids

vygotsky's sociocultural theory

he viewed a child as an apprentice in thinking- one whose cognition is directed by more knowledgable members of society

guided participation

the process by which children learn from mentors who guide their experiences
-present challenges
-offer assistance as needed
-add info as needed
-encourage motivation

scaffolding

temporary support that is tailored to a learner's needs and abilities

theory theory

the idea that children attempt to explain everything they see and hear by constructing theories

theory of mind

a person's theory of what other people might be thinking

when does theory of mind develop

around age 4

alison gopnik

false beliefs research,

evans, xu, lee 2011

3-5 year olds left with an upside down cup with candy, as the older they got the better they could lie about why the candy was spilled. about half looked, only 1/4 told the truth

factors contributing to theory of mind

maturation of prefrontal cortex, language ability, older siblings, culture

fast mapping

speedy and imprecise way in which children learn new words by mentally mapping them into categories

lang dev by age 3

lots of grammar rules, but time/place/comparison is still hard

overregularization

applying grammar rules even when exceptions occur (he goed to the store)

initiative vs guilt

a new sense of purposefulness as the child take on new tasks, 3-5 yo

protective optimism

"i can do it" mentality, help kids try new things and persist at difficult tasks, not embarrassed, decreases about second grade

emotional regulation

develops as a result of brain maturation and experience, ability to control when and how emotions are expressed, influenced by: genes, early experiences/stressors, culture, brain maturation, gender, attachment

effortful control

ability to regulate one's emotions and actions through effort, not just natrual inclination

rough and tumble play

play that mimics aggression through wrestling, chasing, or hitting, but in which there is no intent to harm. advances children's social understanding but increased likelihood of injury

Diana Baumrind

research on parenting styles, found 4 main categories of difference: warmth, discipline, communication, expectations

solitary play

plays alone, unaware of other chilren playing nearby

onlooker play

watches others play

parallel play

play with similar toys but not together

cooperative play

play together with common goal or turn taking

four parenting styles

authoritative, authoritarian, permissive, neglectful/uninvolved

authoritative style

high warmth and acceptance, high communication, moderate expectations for maturity, discipline strats involve lots of discussion (firm but fair)

authroitarian style

little warmth, one way communication, very high expectations for maturity, high in coercive control (strict, physical discipline)

permissive style

high warmth, high communication, few/no expectations for maturity, little/no discipline

neglectful/uninvolved parenting

low acceptance and involvement, little/no control, general indifference, unaware

respeto and carina, livas-dlott et al 2010

looked at mexican american moms and 4 year olds, instances where mom tried to change behaviors --> kids usually complied. they used words not physical means. can be stric but still warm

influences on how parenting impacts child

child's temperament, parents's personality, social context

lansford et al 2004, ethnic differences in punishment

white parents "physical punishment is a last resort"
black parents "physical punishment can be delivered in mind/warm fashion"
OVER TIME: phys punishment predicted more antisocial behavieor in white teens, less in black teens
CONCLUSION: cultural context is very different and perceptions are key

gender typing

the process of developing gender roles or gender linked preferences and behaviors vauled by society

gender identity

an image of oneself as relatively masculine or feminine

theory of gender identity- social learning

behavior leads to gender identity (modeling and reinforcement)

theory of gender identity- cognitive developmental

self perceptions guide behavior

gender constancy

cognitive understanding that sex is biologically based and permanent

theory of gender identity- gender schema

combines social learning and cognitive developmental theories- environmental interactions