Intro to Sociology – Culture, Social Change & Collective Behavior

Vocabulary flashcards covering culture, social movements, social change, collective behavior and related sociological concepts.

Ethnocentrism

The belief that one’s own culture is superior to all others.

Xenophobia

Fear or distrust of people perceived as outsiders or foreigners.

Cultural Relativism

Evaluating a culture by its own standards rather than judging it by the standards of another culture.

Culture

The shared values, beliefs, behaviors and material objects that together form a people’s way of life.

Subculture

A cultural group that exists within a larger dominant culture but differs in its values, norms, or lifestyle.

Counterculture

A group whose values and norms oppose and actively challenge those of the dominant culture.

Material Culture

Physical objects created by a society, such as phones, cars, clothing or tools.

Non-Material Culture

Intangible creations of society—including language, music, symbols and ideas—that cannot be physically touched.

Cultural Universals

Practices or beliefs found in every known culture, often carrying emotional or symbolic significance.

Social Movement

An organized effort by a large number of people to bring about or resist social change.

Revolutionary Movement

A social movement that seeks radical, total change of an existing social order.

Reform Movement

A movement aimed at limited change within the existing political or social structure (e.g., the right-to-vote campaign).

Reactionary Movement

A movement that wants to restore a previous state of social affairs; to “go back” to the past.

Conservative Movement

A movement that tries to prevent change or slow its pace.

Smelser’s Value-Added Theory

A framework explaining how six conditions must add together for a social movement to emerge.

Structural Conduciveness

First condition in value-added theory; the social environment must permit collective action (e.g., freedom of speech).

Structural Strain

Perceived problems or tensions in society that create a sense of grievance among people.

Generalized Belief

A shared explanation of the problem and its possible solutions among potential participants.

Precipitating Event

A triggering incident or person (e.g., Rosa Parks, George Floyd) that sparks collective action.

Leadership & Mobilization

Organizers who coordinate resources and direct collective action in a movement.

Social Control (in movements)

Authorities’ efforts to contain, channel, or accommodate a movement in order to minimize disruption.

Social Solidarity

The sense of unity and shared purpose that binds members of a society together.

Conflict Theory View on Change

Argues that social conflict is a key source of social change.

Social Construction of Reality

The process by which people create shared meanings and agree upon what is ‘real’ in everyday life.

Auguste Comte

French thinker known as the ‘Father of Sociology’; coined the term sociology.

Characteristics of Culture: Learned

Culture is acquired through socialization, not inherited biologically.

Characteristics of Culture: Transmitted

Culture is passed from one generation to the next.

Characteristics of Culture: Based on Symbols

Culture relies on language, gestures and other symbols to convey meaning.

Characteristics of Culture: Changeable

Cultures can be altered and old elements replaced over time.

Characteristics of Culture: Ethnocentric

Members may believe their own cultural practices are the ‘right’ way.

Characteristics of Culture: Adaptive

Culture helps people adjust to environmental or social changes.

Characteristics of Culture: Integrated

Cultural elements are interconnected and part of everyday life.

Norms

Rules and expectations that guide behavior within a society.

Folkways

Informal norms for routine or casual interaction; breaking them yields mild reactions.

Mores

Strongly held norms with moral significance; violations evoke serious sanctions.

Taboos

Norms so strong that violating them is considered unthinkable or repulsive.

Sanctions

Penalties or rewards for following or violating social norms.

Positive Formal Sanction

Official reward such as a medal or certificate.

Negative Formal Sanction

Official punishment such as a fine, ticket, or lawsuit.

Positive Informal Sanction

Unofficial approval such as praise or applause.

Negative Informal Sanction

Unofficial disapproval such as gossip, scolding, or exclusion.

Discovery (Social Change)

Recognizing and understanding something already present in reality, e.g., DNA.

Invention / Innovation

Creating something new or significantly improving existing technology (e.g., flip phone → smartphone).

Diffusion

The spread of cultural traits from one society to another (e.g., fast food, soccer).

Collective Behavior

Spontaneous social actions by large numbers of people outside established norms.

Rumor

Unverified information that spreads quickly from person to person.

Urban Legend

A widely circulated but false story told as though it is true (e.g., Bloody Mary).

Fad / Fashion Craze

Short-lived, highly popular social behavior or style (e.g., seasonal nail colors).

Panic

Widespread fear causing individuals to act irrationally in response to a perceived threat.

Mass Hysteria

Collective, delusion-like anxiety and irrational behavior among a large group of people.

Casual Crowd

A loosely organized, temporary gathering of people with minimal interaction.

Conventional Crowd

People who come together for a scheduled event with a common focus (e.g., graduation).

Expressive Crowd

A crowd formed to express emotions, such as a candlelight vigil.

Acting Crowd

A group focused on a specific goal or action, sometimes aggressive (e.g., protest line).

Mob

A highly emotional, disorderly crowd focused on a specific target; may engage in violence.

Riot

A violent crowd with no clear leader that erupts in destructive behavior.

Contagion Theory

Suggests people in crowds are hypnotized by emotion and imitate others’ actions.

Convergence Theory

People with shared tendencies come together, creating crowd behavior aligned with their predispositions.

Emergent-Norm Theory

New norms arise within a crowd to guide behavior when traditional norms are unclear.