psych syllabus

Structuralism

What is the mind made of? Founded by: Titchener. The three elements of consciousness (according to Titchener):Sensations — Basic experiences from stimuli (color, sound, taste, smell, touch)

1. Images — Mental pictures or representations

2. Feelings — Emotional states (pleasure, tension, excitement)

Functionalism

 Focusing on the mind’s functions, rather than the parts

Wilhelm Wundt

 Founded structuralism. They wanted to break down conscious experience into the most basic parts. To understand the mind, you need to understand the thoughts. 

William James

Founded functionalism. What is the purpose of consciousness? Describe consciousness as a fluid stream. 

Steps of the Scientific Method

1. Make an Observation

2. Ask a question

3. Conduct background research (review existing literature and theories)

4. Form a hypothesis

5. Design and conduct an Experiment

6. Analyze Data and Draw Conclusion

7. Report and Replicate

Formulating Hypotheses

Making a prediction that is testable, theory-driven, and states the expected relationship or difference between variables

1. Descriptive Statistics:

these organize the basic features of a dataset without drawing broader conclusions. Examples: mean, median, mode, range, standard deviation (bell curve, positive skew (more low scores) and negative skew (more high scores), and the variance (the variance is the average of the standard deviations squared).

2. Inferential statistics:

significance level (alpha) the probability of rejecting the null hypothesis (states there is no effect or relationship) when it is true, the p-value is the probability of obtaining results at least as extreme as the observed results. Id p < or equal to alpha, the result is statistically significant, if not: u fail to reject the null hypothesis.

3. Common statistical tests

correlation, t-test (compares the means of 2 groups to see if they differ significantly), ANOVA (analysis of variances: comparing the means of 3 or more independent groups), and Chi-Square (x^2 Test: used to analyze categorical data, like frequencies or counts, to see if observed frequencies diff from expected frequencies). ALSO know Type I error (u reject the null hypothesis, but it was actually true, false positive) vs Type II error (you fail to reject the null hypothesis, but it was actually false, false negative)

Interpreting Data

 be able to interpret the variables (IV vs DV and categorical vs continuous), look for statistical significance (p -values and asterisks (*)), and evaluate negatives vs positive relationships and floor (too hard) and ceiling effects (too easy)

Reporting Research Findings

understanding basically. Ex: t(28)=2.45. Here, this is a t-test and has 28 degrees of freedom (total sample size = df+2) so the sample here is 30 participants. Also, 2.45 is the obtained value, showing how far apart the group means are. Ex: r(58)=-.45. Here, r means the person’s correlation coefficient so it has 58 degrees of freedom (n=df+2)> sample size is 60 participants. -0.45 is the strength and direction of the relationship. Negative means inverse. The strength is out of 1.

Internal and External Validity

Internal Validity: The degree to which a study establishes a trustworthy cause-and-effect relationship. Changes to the dependent variable are solely due to the independent variable. External validity: the extent to which research findings can be generalized to real-word situations

Measurement Reliability

The consistency and repeatability of a research instrument or measurement tool (ex: broken scale = bad)

Probability Sampling

using random sampling

 Non-Probability Sampling:

does not use random sampling

Surveys and Questionnaires

gather self-reported data (biases, likert scale)

Interviews

 research directly talking to participant (bias)

Observations

Naturalistic vs controlled (the hawthorne effect and inter-rater reliability)

Neurons and Neurotransmission

Neurons are cells in the brain that send signals (neurotransmitters). Neurons have a lot of functions including, sensing information from the outside world, regulating internal processes, moving muscles, creating neurotransmitters, and working in the hormone system.

MRI

magnetic resonance imaging. Electrically changed molecules used to form images of the brain.

fMRI

 shows blood flow to the brain. (functional MRI)

PET

Positron emission tomography. Shows how the brain acts when consuming glucose.

Hemispheric Specialization

left and right brain are optimized for different functions. Left: language and speech, analytical speaking, and motor control. Right: visual-spatial awareness, non verbal communication, and artistic concepts.

Cognitive Processes

perception, attention (selective, divided, and sustained), memory (encoding, storage, and retrieval), and language

Barriers to Effective Problem-Solving

mental set, functional fixedness, irrelevant information, confirmation bias, lack of motivation, and overconfidence

Rational and Intuitive Decision Making

rational: a rule based, step-by-step process of decision making. Intuitive: an abstract, holistic approach to decision making and is often characterized by things like a “gut feeling”

Language and Cognition

 linguistic framing

Sensory Systems

transduction (vision, audition, olfaction, gustation, and somatosensation

Sensory Adaptation

 changes in stimulation

Spearman

The idea of the G factor. A score known as IQ. 1 intelligence.

Gardner

Multiple intelligences theory (8).

Sternberg

looks at the interaction between 3 types of intelligence: analytical, creative, and practical. Triarchic theory. The score is not quantifiable and comparable like spearman’s.

Cultural Considerations in Testing

 discrepancies in IQ revealing inequities between groups, rather than intelligences. Discriminatory practices due to IQ ideas (immigration, education, military, and employment).

Theories of Language Acquisition

Nativist, learning, and interactionist

Nativist

humans are biologically wired to acquire a language

Learning

language is not innate, it is a learned behavior

Interactionist Perspectives

language acquisition is a collaborative process between biology and environmental factors

Verbal and Nonverbal Communication

verbal is written and spoken language. Nonverbal is kinetics (movement), proxemes (distance), oculesics (eye contract), and haptics (touch)

Conformity

Changing one’s beliefs and behavior to more closely align with those of others in response to some (real or imaged) pressure to do so. 

Compliance

occurs when a person responds favorably to a request from another person. (that person usually have more power over the other, like a boss)

Obedience

occurs when a more powerful person issues a DEMAND not a request

Leadership

different psychologists think leaders are motivated by different things. Different leaders have different personality traits, which influences how they lead. Empathy, openness to experience, and emotional stability are often linked to effective leadership. Leadership styles: how leaders interact with their team. (authoritarian vs. democratic vs. transformational <- motives people by creating visions of the future). Motivation is important. Leaders use motivation to make their teams do things.

Decision Making

 The way we think affects our decisions. (heuristic and biases and also social influences)

 Attraction and Love

attraction is the initial pull driven by proximity, perceived similarity,and neurochemical surges. Love is long term. Passionate and compassionate love.

Aggression

antisocial behavior. Usual differences in the amygdala and more testosterone. Frustration-aggression principal

Humanistic (Rogers, Maslow) theory of personality

personality causing you to be driven towards self-esteem, self-efficacy, and self-actualization. Rogers: emphasizes the innate drive toward growth. Maslow: behavior is motivated by step-by-step progression to fulfill basic needs

Objective Tests (MMPI, NEO-PI)

objective personality tests are standardized, self-report inventories that use fixed choice questions to measure psychopathology and personality traits. MMPI: Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory; assesses psychopathology and mental health diagnosis. NEO-PI: NEO Personality inventory; measures normal-range personality traits

Stability and Change in Personality

 individuals maintain their relative personality rankings compared to peers. Unchanging personality theories: trait perspective theory, biological trait theory, and classic psychoanalytic theory. Changing: social cognitive, humanistic, behaviorist, and psychosocial stage theory

Factors Influencing Personality Change

deliberate psychological interventions, major life events, natural aging, and biological shifts

Cross-Cultural Psychology

the study of psychology across diverse cultural conditions

Cultural Relativism

the view that a society’s beliefs, values, and practices should be understood within the context of that culture, rather than be judged

Intersectionality

an analytical framework that describes how an individual’s overlapping social and political identities (race, gender, class, sexuality, and ability) intersect to create unique modes of discrimination, privilege and systemic oppression

Multicultural Competence

the ability to understand, respect, and effectively interact with people from diverse cultural backgrounds.

 Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

physiological needs, safety & security, love & belonging, self-esteem, and self-actualization

James-Lange

Emotional Theory of Succession

Cannon-Bard

 emotional feelings and physiological arousal occur simultaneously

Schachter-Singer

experiencing an emotion requires both physical arousal and a cognitive label

Emotional Intelligence

allows individuals to monitor their own and others’ feelings. (self-awareness, self-management, social awareness, and relationship management)

• Coping Mechanisms: tools used to manage, diffuse, or process strong emotions

Mood Disorders

representative of a group of mental health conditions that cause severe mood changes and distort your emotional state such as bipolar disorder and depression.

Psychotic Disorders

severe mental disorders that cause abnormal thinking and perceptions. Two main symptoms: delusions and hallucinations. (basically schizophrenia)

Pharmacotherapy

The treatment of disease or illness through the administration of pharmaceutical drugs

Coping Strategies

Problem-Focused Coping vs. Emotion Focused Coping. Sensitizers (monitors): people who cope with health problems and other aversive events by closely scanning their bodies and environments for information. Vs. Repressors (blunters): people who cope with health problems and other adverse events by ignoring or distancing themselves from stressful information

Health Behaviors and Lifestyle

Our behavior has a direct impact on our physical health.

Nutrition

Good nutrition can lower your risk of developing a range of chronic diseases. For example, eating more fruits and vegetables can help lower blood pressure and may lower your risk of certain types of cancer. Eating less saturated fat may lower your risk of heart disease. Eating properly can also help you to maintain a healthy weight, avoid developing health problems such as sleep apnea, coronary heart disease and stroke, type 2 diabetes, pregnancy complications, gallbladder disease, osteoarthritis, and fatty liver disease.

Exercise

Physical activity (Especially aerobic exercise) helps improve moods. Proved through meta-analysis. Regular exercise can help protect you from heart disease and stroke, high blood pressure, noninsulin-dependent diabetes, obesity, back pain, osteoporosis, and can improve your mood and help you better manage stress. (experts recommend 20-30 mins of aerobic activity 3+ times a week and strengthening activities and stretching activities at least twice a week.

Substance Use

Addiction is a condition, produced by repeated consumption of a natural or synthetic psychoactive substance, in which the person has become physically and psychologically dependent on the substance. Physical dependence occurs when the body has adjusted to a substance and incorporated it into the normal functioning of the body’s tissues. This state has 2 characteristics” 1. Tolerance, 2. Withdrawal. Users who become addicted usually become psychologically dependent on the substance, then physically dependent.

Prevention and Intervention Programs

These programs focus on modifying behaviors to promote well-being, manage chronic illness, and prevent disease. Grounded in the Biopsychosocial model and targets risk factors across 3 levels: Primary: interventions designed to prevent disease or injury before it ever occurs. Ex: smoking bans and educational campaigns. Secondary: Early detection and intervention to stop a disease from progressing. Ex: blood pressure screening and mammograms. Tertiary: interventions aiming to reduce the severity or impact of an already established chronic illness. Ex: chronic pain coping strategies and rehabilitation groups. There are also intervention tiers: universal, selective, and indicated

The Role of Psychology in Medical Settings

Recent research has proved that health and illness is the product of a combination of factors including biological characteristics, behavioral factors, and social conditions. The understanding of the body-mind-behavior relationship has dramatically changed the medical system and practice.

Patient-Provider Interaction

Patient-centered healthcare emphasizes interpersonal dynamics, mutual participation in decision-making, use of appropriate resources, reciprocity and feedback, and patient education. (Nonmaleficence, fidelity, integrity, and respect for people’s rights and dignity = confidentiality)

Psychological Interventions in Chronic Illness

The process of adapting to chronic illness involves coming to terms with the disease and modifying one’s lifestyle to suit or conform to the new situation. Some treatments include cognitive behavior therapies, Acceptance and commitment therapy, Psychoeducation and patient support, social support interventions, and uncertainty management interventions.

Factors Influencing Therapy Outcomes

 an individual’s motivation and engagement, the therapeutic alliance,the treatment fit, the severity of the issues, the external support systems, the openness to change, the cultural considerations, the holistic approach, and how personalized the care is 

7 modern perspectives

Psychodynamic, behavioral, cognitive, humanistic, biological, evolutionary, and sociocultural

what p value tells u a result is unlikely by chance

p < .05

what makes psychology a science rather than an opinion?

1. Empiricism — Knowledge comes from systematic observation and data, not speculation or authority.

2. Objectivity — Researchers use standardized procedures to minimize personal bias.

3. Replicability — Studies must be repeatable by independent researchers to confirm findings.

4. Falsifiability — Scientific claims must be testable and capable of being proven wrong (Karl Popper's criterion).

5. Systematic methodology — Psychology uses the scientific method: observe, hypothesize, test, analyze, conclude.

The four goals organize everything psychology does

describe (what), explain (why), predict (when again), and change (how to intervene).

Basic vs. applied research

answer different questions; both are real psychology, just with different proximity to practical application.

introspection

breaking an experience down into its raw parts Ex: (apple)I see a round, red shape varying in hue… (struct)

when did psychology split from philosophy

late 1800s

DTI

A Diffusion Tensor Imaging (DTI) test is an advanced MRI technique that maps the brain's internal communication pathways

Axon hillock

Initiates action potentials (trigger zone)

Nodes of Ranvier

Gaps in myelin; sites of ion exchange

Saltatory Conduction

In myelinated axons, the action potential does not travel continuously along the membrane. Instead, it 'jumps' from one Node of Ranvier to the next

Excitatory Postsynaptic Potential (EPSP)

• A small depolarization of the postsynaptic membrane (makes the interior less negative, closer to threshold).

• move towards threshold

• Caused by the influx of Na+ (or other positive ions) through receptor-gated channels.

• A single EPSP is usually too small to trigger an action potential on its own.

Inhibitory Postsynaptic Potential (IPSP)

• A small hyperpolarization of the postsynaptic membrane (makes the interior more negative, farther from threshold).

• Caused by influx of Cl- (chloride) or efflux of K+.

• moves away from threshold

• Makes it harder for the neuron to fire.

Temporal summation

Multiple signals from the same presynaptic neuron arriving in rapid succession add together.

Spatial summation

Signals from multiple presynaptic neurons arriving simultaneously add together.

Ca²⁺ =

"Release the message."

Cl⁻

"Slow down. Don't fire."

Gray matter (butterfly/H-shaped center): Contains cell bodies, dendrites, interneurons, and synapses. Divided into

• Dorsal (posterior) horns -- receive sensory (afferent) information

• Ventral (anterior) horns -- contain motor (efferent) neuron cell bodies

• Lateral horns (thoracic/lumbar only) -- contain autonomic (sympathetic) neurons

White matter (surrounding the gray)

Contains myelinated axon tracts that carry signals up and down the cord. Organized into:

• Ascending tracts -- carry sensory info TO the brain

• Descending tracts -- carry motor commands FROM the brain

The CNS is protected by three systems

1. Meninges (Three Membrane Layers)

From outermost to innermost:

• Dura mater ('tough mother') -- thick, durable outer membrane

• Arachnoid mater ('spider-like mother') -- web-like middle layer

• Pia mater ('tender mother') -- thin, delicate layer that adheres directly to the brain surface

• The subarachnoid space (between arachnoid and pia) contains cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)

2. Cerebrospinal Fluid (CSF)

• Produced by choroid plexuses in the brain's ventricles (~500 mL/day; ~150 mL circulating at any time)

• Functions: cushions the brain (reduces effective weight from ~1400g to ~50g), removes metabolic waste, transports hormones and nutrients

• Circulates through the four ventricles, central canal, and subarachnoid space

3. Blood-Brain Barrier (BBB)

• Formed by tight junctions between endothelial cells of brain capillaries, reinforced by astrocyte end-feet

• Selectively permits passage: allows O2, CO2, glucose, and lipid-soluble molecules; blocks most pathogens, large molecules, and many drugs

• Clinical significance: Many medications cannot cross the BBB, complicating treatment of brain disorders. L-DOPA crosses (used for Parkinson's), but dopamine itself does not.

Cortical remapping

Surrounding areas gradually take over functions of damaged regions

Contralateral compensation

The opposite hemisphere may partially assume functions lost due to unilateral damage, especially in younger brains.

Axonal sprouting

Surviving neurons grow new axon branches to form connections that replace lost ones

Denervation supersensitivity

Post-synaptic neurons become more sensitive to remaining neurotransmitter input after losing some of their afferent connections.

The Kennard Principle (and Its Limits):

• Margaret Kennard (1930s-40s) showed that brain lesions in young monkeys produced less severe deficits than equivalent lesions in adults.

• This led to the generalization: 'earlier is better' for recovery.

• However, this principle has limits -- very early damage can disrupt foundational developmental processes, and some functions (e.g., executive functions mediated by the prefrontal cortex) may not manifest deficits until later in development when those abilities are normally expected to emerge.

glial cell types CNA

Cell Type	Key Functions
Astrocytes	Most abundant CNS glia; maintain the blood-brain barrier (end-feet wrap around capillaries); regulate extracellular ion (K+) and neurotransmitter concentrations; provide metabolic support (lactate shuttle to neurons); involved in tripartite synapse signaling; form scar tissue after injury (gliosis)
Oligodendrocytes	Form myelin sheaths in the CNS; each oligodendrocyte myelinates segments of multiple axons (up to 50); myelin increases conduction speed via saltatory conduction
Microglia	The brain's resident immune cells; phagocytose debris, dead cells, and pathogens; release cytokines during neuroinflammation; involved in synaptic pruning during development
Ependymal cells	Line the ventricles and central canal; cilia help circulate CSF; some act as neural stem cells

PNS Glial cells

PNS Glial Cells:

• Schwann cells -- form myelin in the PNS; unlike oligodendrocytes, each Schwann cell wraps around only one segment of one axon. Crucial for peripheral nerve regeneration -- they form a regeneration tube that guides regrowing axons.

• Satellite cells -- surround neuronal cell bodies in PNS ganglia; regulate the microenvironment.

Neurotransmitters are also grouped by their molecular structure:

Category	Examples	Key Features
Monoamines	Dopamine, serotonin, norepinephrine, epinephrine	Derived from amino acids; contain one amino group; widely involved in mood, arousal, and reward
Amino acids	Glutamate, GABA, glycine	Simple structure; the most abundant neurotransmitters in the CNS
Acetylcholine	ACh (the sole member)	Unique category; critical for muscle contraction and cognition
Neuropeptides	Endorphins, substance P, oxytocin	Larger molecules (chains of amino acids); slower-acting; often function as neuromodulators

Important: The monoamines are further subdivided into catecholamines (dopamine, norepinephrine, epinephrine — all derived from the amino acid tyrosine) and indolamines (serotonin — derived from tryptophan).

Major dopamine pathways

Pathway	From → To	Function	Clinical Relevance
Mesolimbic	Ventral tegmental area (VTA) → Nucleus accumbens	Reward, motivation, pleasure	Addiction; positive symptoms of schizophrenia (excess DA)
Mesocortical	VTA → Prefrontal cortex	Cognition, working memory, planning	Negative symptoms of schizophrenia (deficit of DA); ADHD
Nigrostriatal	Substantia nigra → Dorsal striatum (caudate & putamen)	Motor control	Parkinson's disease (degeneration of this pathway)
Tuberoinfundibular	Hypothalamus → Pituitary gland	Inhibits prolactin release	Hyperprolactinemia when blocked by antipsychotics